■',^ixiWmicffg^ 


m   2400  .B4  1901  ^* 
leach,  Harlan  Page,  1854 

^'geography  and  atlas  of 
P?otestant  missions 


A  GEOGRAPHY  AND   ATLAS 
OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

VOLUME   I 
GEOGRAPHY 


A  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ATLAS 
OF  PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


THEIR  ENVIRONMENT,  FORCES,  DISTRIBUTION, 
METHODS,  PROBLEMS,  RESULTS  AND  PROSPECTS 
AT  THE  OPENING  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY 


V 

By  HARLAN  P.  BEACH,  M.A. 

Educational  Secretary  Student  Volunteer  Movement 

Fellow  of  the  American  Geographical   Society 

Member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society 


VOLUME  I 
GEOGRAPHY 


NEW  YORK 

STUDENT  VOLUNTEER   MOVEMENT 

FOR  FOREIGN   MISSIONS 

1901 


COPYRIGHT,   1 901,    BY 

STUDENT   VOLUNTEER   MOVEMENT 
FOR   FOREIGN    MISSIONS 


PREFACE 


The  present  work  is  the  twenty-third  in  a  series  of  text- 
books that  have  been  pubHshed  since  1894  for  the  use  of 
students  in  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  of  North  Amer- 
ica. As  those  for  whom  the  books  are  primarily  prepared  are 
members  of  study  classes  conducted  by  the  Student  Volunteer 
Movement  for  Foreign  Missions,  their  needs  have  determined 
the  typographical  peculiarities  and  the  selection  of  material 
here  found. 

The  general  aim  of  the  present  volume  is  to  present  in  Part 
I  of  each  chapter  facts  bearing  on  the  geography,  ethnography 
and  religions  of  the  country  under  discussion,  thus  placing 
the  reader  in  possession  of  the  main  elements  in  the  mis- 
sionary's environment.  Part  II  follows  with  a  statement  of 
the  missionary  force,  work  and  outlook.  This  part  of  each 
chapter  is  a  present-day  survey  only. 

Volume  II  is  a  royal  quarto.  It  contains,  in  addition  to  the 
maps  especially  prepared  for  this  work,  an  index  to  mission 
stations  and  the  statistics  of  more  than  four  hundred  independ- 
ent and  auxiliary  societies.  Its  size  makes  it  possible  to 
present  on  a  single  page  extended  tables,  as  well  as  to  print 
far  larger  maps  than  could  appear  in  a  volume  as  small  as  this 
one.  Unlike  the  missionary  maps  printed  hitherto  by  the  Volun- 
teer Movement  and  by  most  missionary  societies,  in  which  few 
towns  except  those  occupied  by  missionaries  appear,  these  maps 
are  purposely  made  full  in  order  to  give  some  conception  of  the 
land  yet  to  be  possessed.     The  Station  Index  is  likewise  as 


VI  PREFACE 

valuable  as  it  is  unique.  So  far  as  the  author  knows  the  lit- 
erature, nothing-  of  the  sort  has  ever  appeared. 

A  superficial  examination  of  the  present  volumes  will  reveal 
the  differences  between  them  and  other  works  of  somewhat 
similar  scope.  Usually  these  are  prepared  for  the  use  of  a  sin- 
gle society,  and  even  the  most  extensive  and  valuable  publica- 
tion of  the  class,  "  The  Church  Missionary  Atlas,"  1896,  con- 
fines its  letter-press  and  maps  almost  solely  to  its  own  opera- 
tions and  fields.  Ecumenical  volumes,  such,  for  example,  as 
Dean  Vahl's  "  Missionsatlas  med  Forklaring,"  1883-86,  and 
Grundemann's  "  Kleine  Missions-Geographie  und  -Statistik," 
1901,  have  to  do  with  the  work  of  the  larger  societies  only. 
Still  others  are  either  statistical  and  cartographical,  like  Dr. 
Dennis's  "  Centennial  Survey  of  Foreign  Missions,"  1902,  or 
cartographical  alone,  as  Grundemann's  "  Neuer  Missionsatlas," 
1896.  In  so  far  as  those  volumes  describe  missionary  opera- 
tions, the  treatment  is  largely  historical,  little  attention  being 
paid  to  the  present  status  of  missionary  effort.  Much  space 
is  given  to  statistics  of  stations  occupied,  societies  engaged 
and  the  results  of  missionary  effort. 

The  present  work  includes  the  operations  of  a  larger  number 
of  societies  than  are  found  in  any  other  publication,  except  Dr. 
Dennis's ;  but,  unlike  his  volume,  it  contains  extended  descrip- 
tions of  the  various  fields  and  concise  accounts  of  the  present 
missionary  status  and  outlook.  While  it  gives  in  its  Station 
Index  more  data  with  regard  to  the  work  of  the  various  stations 
throughout  the  world  than  are  found  in  any  other  volume, 
thousands  of  criticisms  from  students  and  professors,  received 
during  the  past  six  years,  have  practically  banished  such  de- 
tails from  the  descriptive  volume.  These  friends  object  to  be- 
ing obliged  to  read  barren  and  categorical  lists  of  towns,  so- 
cieties, station  statistics,  etc.,  though  they  acknowledge  their 
value  in  tabular  form.  The  absence  of  the  critical  element, 
which  makes  Dr.  Warneck's  writings  so  valuable,  was  necessi- 
tated by  the  lack  of  space.  The  same  necessity  has  prevented 
anything  more  than  the  barest  reference  to  the  fascinating  and 


I'REFACE  Vii 

instructive  history  of  the  planting  and  development  of  Prot- 
estant missions  in  the  various  fields.  The  reader  is  referred 
for  such  material  to  Warneck's  "  History  of  Protestant  Mis- 
sions," 1901,  or  to  text-books  published  by  the  Volunteer 
Movement  on  the  leading  missionary  countries. 

The  reader  will  likewise  note  that,  unlike  writers  of  the  Con- 
tinental school,  the  author  includes  missionary  operations 
among  the  Catholic  populations  of  Latin  America.  In  Volume 
II,  statistics  of  Protestant  missionary  societies  laboring  in  the 
Papal  countries  of  Europe  are  likewise  included,  for  the  rea- 
son that  an  account  of  these  societies  would  be  incomplete 
without  statistical  reference,  at  least,  to  missions  among  com- 
munities that  are  not  deemed  proper  mission  fields  by  some 
distinguished  writers. 

On  the  other  hand,  no  reference  is  here  made  to  labors  for 
the  colored  population  of  the  United  States,  though  both  Dr. 
Grundemann  and  Professor  Warneck  consider  them  as  falling 
within  the  province  of  the  "  Heidenmission."  While  admit- 
ting the  inconsistency  which  Dr.  Warneck  points  out  of  in- 
cluding the  colored  population  of  the  West  Indies  and  omit- 
ting the  negroes  of  the  United  States,  it  may  still  be  said  that 
when  the  Protestant  colored  churches  of  only  six  denomina- 
tions have  a  membership  of  3,314,581,  thirty-eight  per  cent. 
of  the  entire  colored  population  according  to  the  census  of 
1900,  —  a  far  larger  proportion  of  church  members  than  pre- 
vails among  the  whites,  —  they  can  hardly  be  considered  as 
included  in  the  list  of  heathen,  notwithstanding  their  African 
ancestry. 

Another  feature  of  Volume  I  will  probably  be  criticised, 
namely,  the  large  amount  of  space  given  to  quotations.  This 
is  intentional.  As  no  one  writer  can  by  any  possibility  per- 
sonally visit  all  the  mission  fields  of  the  world  and  thus  be- 
come competent,  in  a  sense,  to  give  first-hand  views  con- 
cerning them,  the  author  has  in  lieu  thereof  attempted  to  se- 
cure information  from  the  most  reliable  sources.  Instead  of 
burdening  the  volume  with  footnotes  acknowledging  the  hun- 


Vlll  PREFACE 

dreds  of  sources  consulted,  he  has  adopted  the  expedient  of 
freely  using  quotation  marks  and  giving  in  Appendices  A  and 
B  most  of  the  authorities  that  have  been  consulted.  Part  II 
of  the  various  chapters  owes  much  to  the  nearly  two  hundred 
missionaries  from  different  parts  of  the  world,  whose  names 
were  suggested  by  their  societies  and  who  have  so  kindly  and 
freely  furnished  the  author  with  most  valuable  information. 
He  hereby  acknowledges  his  great  indebtedness  and  gratitude 
to  these  workers  who  are  in  the  thick  of  the  fight.  He  is 
even  more  indebted  to  the  nearly  three  hundred  missionary 
societies  that  have  so  generously  furnished  him  with  detailed 
statistics,  as  well  as  with  printed  reports  of  their  recent  work. 

December,  igoi. 


CONTENTS 

Part  I 

Part  II 

General 

Missionary 

I 

The  Aborigines  of  America 

I 

26 

II 

Mexico 

45 

53 

III 

Central  America         .... 

67 

76 

IV 

The  West  Indies         .... 

83 

92 

V 

South  America 

103 

124 

VI 

Oceania 

142 

152 

VII 

New  Zealand  and  Australian  Aborigines 

and  New  Guinea     .... 

166 

175 

VIII 

The  Malay  Archipelago,  or  Malaysia 

184 

191 

IX 

Japan  and  Its  Outlying  Islands  . 

204 

219 

X 

Korea 

236 

247 

XI 

China  and  Its  Dependencies 

257 

275 

XII 

Siam,    Laos,    Straits    Settlements    and 

Protected  States     .... 

302 

308 

XIII 

Burma  and  Ceylon      .... 

319 

33° 

XIV 

India 

343 

360 

XV 

Persia,  or  Iran 

390 

400 

XVI 

Turkey,  or  the  Ottoman  Empire 

408  - 

416 

XVII 

Africa 

431 

453 

XVIII 

Madagascar  and  Other  African  Islands 

477 

485 

XIX 

Fields  Practically  Unoccupied    . 

493 

507 

XX 

Missions  to  the  Jews 

516 

521 

XXI 

Japanese    and    Chinese    in    Christian 

Lands             

527 

532 

Appendix  A  —  Missionaries  Who   Have 

Contributed  to  This  Volume  . 

545 

Appendix  B  —  Bibliography 

550 

Index          

559 

GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


THE  ABORIGINES  OF  AMERICA 

Scope  of  this  Work.  —  Its  aim  is  to  comprehensively  pre- 
sent the  fields,  the  forces  and  the  work  of  Protestant  Missions. 
To  this  end  the  first  volume  is  devoted  to  a  survey  of  all  mis- 
sion lands  occupied  by  Protestant  missionaries,  together  with 
their  varied  activities,  and  of  some  special  forms  of  work,  such 
as  missions  to  Jews,  Indians  and  Chinese  in  Protestant  lands. 
Though  missionary  effort  in  Catholic  Europe  is  omitted,  there 
are  four  chapters  on  missions  laboring  in  Latin  America.  While 
some  eminent  missionary  writers  omit  reference  to  efforts  to 
reach  nominal  Christians  in  countries  where  Christianity  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  type  is  widely  dominant,  this  volume  de- 
viates from  so  defensible  a  position  for  the  reason  that  prom- 
inent missionary  societies  count  such  operations  as  part  of  their 
legitimate  program.  In  order  to  present  their  work,  there- 
fore, theoretical  objections  have  yielded  before  actual  condi- 
tions. Volume  II  contains  maps  upon  which  is  indicated  the 
position  of  such  mission  stations  —  not  outstations  —  as  could 
be  located,  as  well  as  other  maps  general  in  character  and  likely 
to  be  useful  to  those  who  desire  to  learn  the  orographical, 
climatic,  racial  and  religious  conditions  prevailing  in  the  world. 
In  this  volume  are  also  found  the  latest  missionary  statistics 
kindly  furnished  by  the  societies,  and  a  Station  Index,  exhibit- 
ing at  a  glance  the  location,  working  force  and  plant  of  each 
station. 


2  GEOGRAPHY  OF  PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

The  chapters  in  the  first  volume  are  subdivided  into  general 
and  missionary  sections.  This  is  done  to  meet  the  convenience 
of  those  who  wish  to  study  these  lands  from  one  standpoint 
only.  Thus  many  of  the  mission-study  classes  in  American 
colleges  and  universities  —  for  whom  the  volumes  are  pri- 
marily intended  —  desire  to  learn  only  about  missionary  opera- 
tions, while  many  others  among  our  constituency  are  looking  to 
foreign  service  and  hence  are  desirous  of  undertaking  a  gen- 
eral study  of  each  country,  as  well  as  that  of  its  more  strictly 
missionary  aspects.  It  inevitably  follows  that  there  are  occa- 
sional repetitions  in  the  second  part  of  each  chapter,  though 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  reduce  such  duplication  to  a 
minimum.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  space  given  to  some 
countries  is  greater  than  their  importance  would  seem  to  war- 
rant. This  has  usually  been  the  case  in  those  lands  about 
which  little  information  is  commonly  available.  Thus  Central 
America  is  so  little  written  about  in  missionary  periodicals 
and  other  literature  that  a  seemingly  undue  amount  of  space 
is  devoted  to  those  republics,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  work  there,  except  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  so  recent. 
This  will  also  account  for  the  space  devoted  to  the  American 
aborigines  and  to  Oceania,  where  only  one  American  society 
is  laboring  among  the  heathen  population,  —  other  European 
societies  are  there,  however,  —  and  to  Persia,  about  which  few 
in  America  except  Presbyterians  know  and  only  a  small  num- 
ber in  Europe.  In  other  cases,  also,  more  space  is  devoted  to 
one  country  than  to  another  of  equal  or  greater  importance. 
For  example,  South  America  has  proportionately  far  less 
material  in  the  missionary  section  than  Mexico.  This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  the  latter  is  the  first  Latin  America 
country  treated,  and  as  similar  conditions  exist  in  all  Catholic 
lands  in  America,  a  less  space  is  given  to  Part  II  of  South 
America. 

In  order  to  most  profitably  use  this  work,  it  is  suggested 
that  the  atlas  volume  be  kept  open  as  Volume  I  is  being  studied, 
so  that  constant  reference  to  the  corresponding  map  may  be 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  3 

convenient.    Separate  volumes  make  this  more  easy  than  when 
maps  are  found  in  another  part  of  the  book  studied. 

It  is  impossible  in  so  brief  a  work  to  devote  any  space  to 
the  history  of  missions  in  a  given  country.  Standard  volumes 
in  condensed  form,  like  Professor  G.  Warneck's  "  Abriss 
einer  Geschichte  der  protestantischen  Missionen  von  der  Re- 
formation bis  auf  die  Gegenwart,"  1901,  or  the  more  extended 
and  popular  "  Conquests  of  the  Cross,"  3  vols.,  1890,  by  E. 
Hodder,  must  be  consulted  for  such  information.  Space  limi- 
tations likewise  prevent  any  extended  mention  of  the  work  of 
particular  boards ;  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  histories, 
of  which  those  of  the  Moravians,  Church  Missionary  Society 
and  London  Missionary  Society  are  the  best  illustrations  of 
recent  missionary  literature  in  English. 


PART  I.  — GENERAL 

I.  The  Countries.  —  As  Greenland  and  possibly  Labrador 
were  the  first  lands  to  be  discovered  on  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, our  survey  will  begin  there. 

I-  Greenland  received  its  name  from  Erik  the  Red,  who  was 
banished  from  Iceland  and  in  the  year  986  a.d.  established  two 
colonies  upon  this  continental  island.  Though  he  wrote  that 
it  was  a  country  greener  than  his  beloved  fatherland,  and  that 
its  "  rivers  were  thick  with  fish  and  the  grass  dropped  butter," 
a  contemporary  voyager,  Biarni,  truthfully  described  it  as  a 
coimtry  of  mountains  and  huge  ice-hills,  and  naively  says  of 
Erik,  "  he  called  it  Greenland  because,  quoth  he,  people  will 
be  attracted  thither,  if  the  land  has  a  good  name." 

The  scenery  of  this  home  of  icebergs  and  Eskimos  is  some- 
what diversified  along  the  coast,  where  bold  headlands,  some 
of  them  nearly  a  mile  high,  tower  heavenward,  while  deep 
fjords,  into  which  slowly  moving  glaciers  deposit  with  a  roar 
like  the  discharge  of  artillery  their  gigantic  progeny,  are  some- 
times fringed  with  a  stunted  growth  of  alder,  birch  and  rowan- 


4  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

trees.  Inland  nothing  except  a  terrible  waste  of  "  ice  —  rough, 
crevasse-torn,  white,  earthless,  moraineless,  lifeless  —  is  seen, 
until,  in  the  far  distance,  the  view  is  bounded  by  a  dim,  misty 
horizon  of  ice.  The  only  exception  to  this  general  statement 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  here  and  there  the  ice  has  licked 
in  and  surrounded,  but  not  yet  covered,  bits  of  high  land  which 
stand  out  black  amid  the  surrounding  icy  whiteness." 

Resources.  —  If  the  land  is  cold  and  cheerless,  sea  and  sky 
are  remarkable  for  their  teeming  life  and  wealth  of  scintillat- 
ing color.  Fur-bearing  animals,  fish  of  various  sorts,  including 
one  species  of  whale  whose  weight  has  been  estimated  as  equal 
to  that  of  eighty-eight  elephants,  clouds  of  summer  birds  and 
maddening  mosquitoes,  and  on  land  the  useful  dog  and  rapidly 
disappearing  reindeer,  are  prominent  representatives  of  the 
animate  creation.  The  nightless  day  of  summer  and  the  winter 
days  that  know  no  sun,  but  flash  with  the  matchless  play  of  the 
aurora  borealis,  are  also  characteristic  features  of  a  Greenland 
experience.  Aside  from  the  fish  and  the  furs  with  the  flesh 
which  they  cover  there  is  little  of  worth  in  this  frozen  land ; 
for,  excepting  cryolite,  the  minerals  occurring  are  not  com- 
mercially profitable. 

Fortunately  the  climate  of  those  lands  from  which  the  earlier 
settlers  came  was  almost  arctic  in  character,  or  it  would  per- 
haps have  driven  them  home.  The  lowest  temperature  reported 
from  the  northern  settlements  is  — 66.5°  F.,  and  the  maximum 
in  the  South  is  68°  F.  Spring  and  autumn  are  disagreeable  be- 
cause of  rain,  sleet,  snow,  ice  and  fog,  and  in  winter  the  "  exer- 
cise of  the  sometimes  scurvied  residents  is  confined  to  within  a 
few  yards  of  the  houses,  when  the  great  depth  of  snow  will  ad- 
mit even  of  this."  The  hardship  most  keenly  felt  by  mission- 
aries, however,  is  the  lack  of  summer,  rather  than  the  severity 
of  winter. 

Greenland  being  subject  to  Denmark,  the  Government  is  in 
the  hands  of  representatives  of  its  trade  monopoly  who  sin- 
cerely desire  to  promote  the  highest  welfare  of  the  Eskimos. 
Their  aim  is  "  to  prevent  spirits  being  sold  to  them  and  the 


THE   ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  5 

vice,  disease,  and  misery,  which  usually  attend  the  collision 
between  civilization  of  the  trader's  type  and  barbarism,  being 
introduced  into  the  primitive  arctic  community."  While  this 
commendable  monopoly  pays  the  Eskimos  low  prices  for  their 
produce,  it  also  sells  "  them  European  articles  of  necessity  at 
prime  cost,  and  other  stores,  such  as  bread,  at  prices  which 
will  scarcely  pay  for  the  purchase  and  freight."  One-sixth  of 
the  profits  of  trade  is  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Green- 
landers,  and  in  strictly  governmental  matters  there  is  an  at- 
tempt to  do  entire  justice  to  native  rights  and  desires.  Per- 
haps nowhere  else  in  the  world  has  a  government  succeeded 
so  well  in  living  up  to  its  theory  of  dealing  fairly  by  an  inferior 
and  subject  race. 

2.  Labrador,  usually  explained  as  meaning  "  laborers'  land," 
may  owe  its  name  to  the  thought  of  some  early  visitors 
that  here  might  be  found  an  American  "  slave  coast."  It  is  a 
triangular  peninsula  of  perhaps  120,000  square  miles,  and  is 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newfoundland  on  its  Atlantic  border, 
while  the  remainder  belongs  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Professor  Hind  describes  the  Atlantic  coast  as  being  "the 
edge  of  a  vast  solitude  of  rocky  hills,  split  and  blasted  by 
frosts  and  beaten  by  waves.  Headlands,  grim  and  naked, 
tower  over  the  waters  —  often  fantastic  and  picturesque  in 
shape  —  while  miles  on  miles  of  rocky  precipices,  or  tame  mon- 
otonous slopes,  alternate  with  stony  valleys  winding  away 
along  the  blue  hills  of  the  interior."  The  inner  plateau  is  in 
some  places  boulder-strewn  and  in  others  is  covered  with  fine 
forest  trees,  while  much  of  it  is  cut  up  by  innumerable  lakes. 
One  writer  says  that  it  seems  to  have  been  left  as  a  specimen 
to  show  what  other  countries  may  have  been  at  the  end  of 
the  glacial  epoch,  when  the  rivers  had  not  worn  down  their 
beds  and  rocks  had  not  been  rounded  and  smoothed,  and  the 
soil  was  accordingly  thin.  Even  the  grandeur  of  the  world's 
largest  cataract  —  Grand  Falls,  little  short  of  2,000  feet  in 
height  —  ill  repays  one  for  the  hardships  of  interior  travel. 

The  wealth  of  this  poverty-stricken  land  is  still  hidden  in 


6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

its  rocky  bosom,  though  the  shores  swarm  with  fishermen  of 
Newfoundland,  Canada  and  the  States  during  the  brief  sum- 
mer. Its  fish,  birds  and  fur-bearing  animals  make  the  lot  of 
the  few  permanent  inhabitants  more  enviable,  Mr.  Low  as- 
serts, than  that  of  the  poorest  in  our  large  cities.  On  the 
other  hand  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  "  states  that  "  as  a 
permanent  abode  for  civilized  man,  Labrador  is  on  the  whole 
one  of  the  most  uninviting  regions  on  the  face  of  the  earth." 

The  control  of  eastern  Labrador  is  vested  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Newfoundland,  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  Yet  little 
legislation  is  required,  jails  and  police  being  substituted  '  for 
by  a  small  revenue  schooner  with  a  justice  of  peace  on  board. 
Beyond  some  unpunished  crime  among  the  Eskimos  and  half- 
breeds,  this  simple  system  is  satisfactory,  thanks  to  the  teach- 
ings of  the  devoted  Moravians. 

3.  Alaska  deserves  the  designation  "  continent "  or  "  large 
country,"  which  is  the  meaning  of  its  original  Aleutian  name, 
Alakshak.  Its  area,  estimated  at  from  531,000  to  570,000 
square  miles,  makes  it  one-sixth  as  large  as  the  United  States 
and  more  than  one-third  as  extensive  as  the  so-called  conti- 
nent of  India.  Originally  regarded  as  a  purchase  far  more 
profitable  to  Russia  than  to  the  United  States,  who  bought 
it  for  $7,200,000  in  1867,  it  has  steadily  increased  in  im- 
portance until  it  is  likely  to  become  one  of  the  most  profitable 
of  its  territorial  possessions. 

Disregarding  the  seven  census  divisions  of  the  country, 
Alaska  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  three  main  districts. 
The  northernmost  of  these,  situated  north  of  the  Alaska  Range 
and  containing  the  mighty  Yukon,  lies  within  the  arctic  circle 
in  part  and  contains  about  five-sixths  of  the  entire  country. 
"  It  consists  essentially  of  a  vast  expanse  of  moor  or  tundra, 
broken  here  and  there  by  mountain  spurs  (an  especially  marked 
feature  in  the  South),  and  varied  by  countless  lakes,  water- 
courses and  sphagnous  swamps."  While  the  winters  are 
frigid,  during  the  short  summers,  with  the  great  heat  due  to 
constant  sunshine,  the  landscape  quickly  assumes  a  greenish 


THE   ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA  J 

hue,  and  bright-colored,  large  flowers  as  well  as  a  variety  of 
berries  abound  in  favorable  situations.  More  than  half  the 
native  inhabitants  of  Alaska,  including  nearly  all  the  Eskimos, 
are  found  in  this  district.  They  subsist  largely  by  the  fisheries 
and  fur  trade,  commerce  being  checked  by  the  shallow  waters 
of  Bering  Sea. 

The  second  or  Aleutian  district  contains  the  Aleutian 
Islands  and  much  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska.  It  is  mainly 
mountainous  and  boasts  of  some  half  dozen  active  volcanoes. 
There  are  several  natural  prairies  covered  with  perennial  wild 
grass,  which  nourish  fat  cattle,  and  promise  one  day  to  furnish 
the  Pacific  Slope  with  its  finest  butter  and  cheese.  No  timber 
larger  than  shrubs  grows  here  and  the  few  Aleutian  inhabi- 
tants, supposed  by  some  to  be  of  Asiatic  origin,  support  them- 
selves by  the  wonderful  fisheries.  The  greatest  fur-seal  cen- 
ter of  the  world  is  located  on  the  Pribilof  Islands  of  this  dis- 
trict, and  the  United  States  territory  farthest  west  —  so  far 
west  that  San  Francisco  is  near  the  center  of  the  United  States, 
reckoning  from  east  to  west  —  is  the  island  of  Attoo,  not  far 
from  Kamchatka. 

The  remaining  portion  of  the  country  consists  of  a  narrow 
strip  of  continental  land  extending  southward  to  British 
Columbia,  and  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  ranking  favorably 
with  the  more  famous  archipelagoes  of  the  southern  seas. 
This  section  is  extremely  mountainous  and  in  part  densely 
wooded.  It  is  also  one  of  the  great  glacier  regions  of  the 
world.  Many  of  these  "  chisels  in  the  hand  of  nature  "  have 
a  working  face  of  from  five  to  twenty  miles  in  width.  Owing 
to  the  Japan  Current  the  climate  of  this  region  is  singularly 
mild  for  the  latitude,  the  winters  not  being  so  cold  as  in  New 
York;  but  the  prevalence  of  rain  is  an  offset  to  its  mildness. 
The  native  inhabitants  are  Indians  in  the  South  —  mainly 
Tlingits  with  a  few  Tsimsians  and  Haidas,  while  in  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  district  they  are  Eskimos  with  about  a  thou- 
sand Athabascan  Indians  and  fewer  Tlingits.  This  is  the 
region  in  which  most  of  the  foreigners  live  and  where  mines 


b  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  commerce  will  be  most  largely  developed.  Its  Kadiak 
portion  promises  more  agriculturally  than  any  other  section  of 
Alaska. 

It  was  of  the  southern  district  that  Secretary  Seward  wrote 
while  at  Berlin :  "  We  have  seen  of  Germany  enough  to  show 
that  its  climate  is  neither  so  genial,  nor  its  soil  so  fertile,  nor 
its  resources  of  forests  and  mines  so  rich  as  those  of  southern 
Alaska."  Bearing  also  in  mind  the  prodigious  wealth  of  its 
fisheries,  the  value  of  its  peltries,  its  probable  future  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  hay  and  dairy  products,  and  the  rich  prophecy  of  its 
mines,  especially  those  of  gold,  the  future  of  this  country  must 
be  such  as  to  make  its  speedy  Christianization  most  important, 
especially  so  in  the  case  of  its  original  inhabitants,  as  they  are 
slowly  diminishing  in  number  before  the  onset  of  civilization. 

The  relation  of  this  territory  to  the  United  States  is  most 
unsatisfactory,  in  spite  of  improvement  due  to  the  recent  great 
influx  of  gold-seekers.  Repeated  attempts  to  secure  for  it 
the  same  advantages  as  are  enjoyed  by  other  territories  of  the 
United  States  have  only  partially  succeeded.  So  far  as  the 
native  peoples  are  concerned,  the  main  disadvantage  arising 
from  this  lax  control  is  the  Government's  inability  to  prevent 
smuggling  of  liquor  into  the  country,  though  it  is  unlawful  so 
to  do.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Government  is  exerting  itself 
to  prevent  future  lack  of  subsistence  in  the  far  North  by  intro- 
ducing reindeer.  It  also  provides  fairly  well  for  the  education 
of  its  wards. 

4.  Dominion  of  Canada.  —  The  Dominion  includes  all  British 
North  America  except  Newfoundland  and  that  portion  of 
Labrador  under  its  jurisdiction.  Its  area,  3,653,946  square 
miles,  is  more  than  twenty-seven  times  that  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  and  is  equal  to  all  of  Europe  except  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Germany  and  Greece.  Of  this  vast  region  a  section  as 
large  as  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Russia,  is  available  for 
settlement.  Those  of  its  inhabitants  with  whom  we  have  to 
do  are  scattered  throughout  its  whole  extent  and  have  their 
homes  in  the  kannatha,  a  native  name  for  village  or  collec- 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  9 

tion  of  huts,  which  Jacques  Cartier  mistakenly  supposed  to 
be  the  Indian  designation  of  their  country  and  which  has  been 
corrupted  into  Canada. 

In  a  region  so  extensive  there  is  the  utmost  diversity  of  en- 
vironment, varying  between  the  barren  lands  of  the  North 
with  the  arctic  islands  sparsely  inhabitated  by  Eskimos  and 
the  fertile  prairies  lying  between  the  Red  River  and  the  Rock- 
ies, or  the  rugged  and  picturesque  stretches  of  British  Colum- 
bia whose  climate  is  said  to  be  the  finest  in  North  America. 
Thousands  of  lakes  with  their  network  of  tributary  streams, 
and  the  great  inland  sea  discovered  by  Henry  Hudson,  are 
an  ideal  environment  for  Indian  fishers  and  trappers,  while 
the  fertile  farms  which  are  beginning  to  be  occupied  by  them 
will  be  a  defence  under  a  watchful  Government  against  their 
extinction. 

5.  The  environment  of  Mexican,  Central  and  South  Ameri- 
can Indians  is  described  in  the  chapters  relating  to  those  coun- 
tries, and  hence  will  not  be  taken  up  at  present.  In  the  States 
they  live  almost  entirely  upon  the  reservations  whose  locations 
are  indicated  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  in  the  accom- 
panying Atlas. 

II,  The  Eskimos,  —  i.  Names  and  Distribution. — These 
"  eaters  of  raw  meats,"  as  the  corrupted  Indian  name  signifies, 
know  themselves  as  Inuit  —  "  men,"  or  "  the  people."  They 
are  the  most  thinly  and  widely  spread  aboriginal  race  of  the 
globe,  an  estimated  population  of  some  40,000  being  scattered 
over  3,200  miles  of  territory,  measured  in  a  straight  line  from 
eastern  Greenland  to  a  point  about  400  miles  beyond  the  east- 
ernmost point  of  Asia.  Yet  they  are  not  an  inland  people 
and  only  skirt  the  shores,  rarely  going  farther  from  the  coast 
than  twenty  miles.  In  spite  of  their  wide  separation,  they 
are  remarkably  homogeneous.  Their  language  differs  so  little 
that  a  Greenlander  can  easily  understand  the  Eskimo  of  the 
remote  West.  All  the  members  of  the  race,  save  the  few  in 
Eastern  Asia,  are  included  in  the  districts  now  under  review. 

The  highest  authority  on  the  subject,  Dr.  Rink,  gives  their 


lO  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

main  divisions  and  numbers  as  follows :  The  Western  Eskimos, 
inhabiting  the  Alaska  territory  and  the  Asiatic  side  of  Bering 
Strait,  rated  at  13,200  souls;  the  Mackenzie  Eskimos  from 
Barter  Island  to  Cape  Bathurst,  2,000;  the  inhabitants  of  the 
central  regions,  including  the  Arctic  Archipelago,  4,000  (  ?)  ; 
the  Labradorians,  2,200;  the  Greenlanders,  upwards  of  11,000; 
a  branch  family  of  impure  blood,  owing  to  intermarriage  with 
Russians  and  others,  inhabits  the  Aleutian  islands  and  num- 
bers 2,400. 

2.  In  appearance  these  people  somewhat  resemble  the  Mon- 
golian and  the  Indian  and  their  origin  has  been  attributed  to 
both  these  sources,  though  the  latter  is  now  the  most  common 
theory,  perhaps.  They  are  of  ordinary  height,  and  their  skin 
is  "  bacony  "  and  found  to  be  slightly  brown  when  freed  from 
the  accumulated  grease  and  dirt  of  years.  Ablutions  are  un- 
known to  most  of  them,  except  in  the  case  of  infants  who  are 
"  sometimes  cleaned  by  being  licked  with  their  mother's  tongue 
before  being  put  in  the  bag  of  feathers  which  serves  as  their 
bed,  cradle  and  blankets."  Coarse,  black  hair  and  little  or 
no  beard  surround  an  oval  face  that  broadens  out  at  the  base 
and  breaks  into  a  grin  at  slight  provocation.  The  dress  of  tlie 
two  sexes  differs  little,  and  consists  of  skins  ingeniously  sewn 
together,  and  in  the  case  of  the  women  prettily  ornamented. 
In  Greenland  Western  cloth  is  coming  into  use  for  inner  gar- 
ments. 

3.  Dr.  Brinton  thus  summarizes  their  salient  characteristics: 
"  They  usually  have  a  cheerful,  lively  disposition,  and  are 
much  given  to  stories,  songs,  and  laughter.  Neither  the  long 
nights  of  the  polar  zone  nor  the  cruel  cold  of  the  winters  damp- 
ens their  glee.  Before  their  deterioration  by  contact  with  the 
whites  they  were  truthful  and  honest.  Their  intelligence  im 
many  directions  is  remarkable,  and  they  invented  and  improved 
many  mechanical  devices  in  advance  of  any  other  tribes  of 
the  race.  Thus  they  alone  on  the  American  continent  used 
lamps.  They  make  them  of  stone  with  a  wick  of  dried  moss. 
The  sledge  with  its  team  of  dogs  is  one  of  their  devices;  and 


THE  ABORIGINES  OF  AMERICA  II 

gloves,  boots  and  divided  clothing  are  articles  of  dress  not 
found  on  the  continent  south  of  them.  Their  '  kayak,'  a  light 
and  strong  boat  of  sealskin  stretched  over  a  frame  of  bones 
or  wood,  is  the  perfection  of  a  sea  canoe.  Their  carvings  in 
bone,  wood  or  ivory,  and  their  outline  drawings,  reveal  no 
small  degree  of  technical  skill ;  and  they  independently  dis- 
covered the  principle  of  the  arch  and  apply  it  to  the  construc- 
tion of  their  domed  snow  houses." 

4.  The  homes  of  these  people  vary  with  the  season.  In  the 
winter  when  they  are  stationary  the  Greenland  abode  has  walls 
of  stones  and  sod;  in  the  central  regions  they  are  formed 
merely  out  of  snow ;  and  in  the  West  they  are  often  constructed 
of  planks  or  sticks  covered  with  earth  or  sod.  Whatever  their 
material  may  be,  these  houses  are  in  most  cases  more  or  less 
communal  and  accommodate  a  number  of  families.  Approach- 
ing on  all-fours  through  a  low  tunnel  some  ten  feet  in  length 
and  passing  through  enlargements  occupied  by  dogs  oftentimes 
or  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  the  missionary  enters  the 
communal  room.  It  may  be  lighted  through  a  clear  block  of 
ice  or  a  window  of  intestine  and  at  night  by  an  ever-burning 
lamp,  or  in  the  West  by  driftwood  fires.  A  sleeping  platform 
is  divided  into  sections  according  to  the  number  of  families. 
"  The  floor  is  usually  very  filthy,  a  pool  of  blood  or  a  dead 
seal  being  often  to  be  seen  there.  Ventilation  is  almost  non- 
existent, and  after  the  lamp  has  blazed  some  time,  the  family 
having  assembled,  the  heat  is  all  but  unbearable ;  the  upper 
garment  must  be  taken  off,  and  the  unaccustomed  visitor  gasps 
half  asphyxiated  in  the  mephitic  atmosphere."  Summer  is  the 
glad  time  of  the  Eskimo's  life.  The  close  atmosphere  of  the 
stone  or  ice  hut  is  exchanged  for  the  woman's  boat  —  umiak  — 
and  the  kayaks  and  the  settlement  journeys  in  these  from  place 
to  place  along  the  shore,  pitching  the  skin  tent  where  game  is 
plentiful,  until  the  rapidly  shortening  days  warn  them  of  the 
long  night  which  must  be  spent  in  newly-made  or  renovated 
huts. 

5.  In  their  social  life  they  are  superior  to  many  more  culti- 


12  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

vated  races.  Prolonged  conflict  with  a  stern  environment  has 
taught  them  to  be  mutually  helpful  one  to  another.  Com- 
munism in  the  home  and  to  some  extent  the  sharing  of  products 
of  hunting  and  fishing,  have  given  them  a  fellow-feeling  that 
is  delightful.  Harsh  words  and  scolding  are  rare ;  wars  among 
themselves  are  practically  unknown,  though  in  their  contact 
with  Indians  they  have  proven  brave  and  formidable  enemies. 
Aside  from  foreign  domination,  they  have  lived  as  old  Fabri- 
cius  said :  "  Sine  Deo,  domino,  reguntur  consuetudine."  As 
the  settlements  contain  from  forty  to  two  hundred  —  in  rare 
cases  —  the  government  of  the  head  of  a  family  or  of  some 
person  skilled  in  the  chase  and  possessed  of  unusual  strength 
and  shrewdness  is  all  the  authority  needed  beyond  the  restric- 
tions of  a  few  well-known  and  wise  customs.  The  custom, 
still  common  in  some  sections,  of  putting  the  aged  to  death 
is  regarded  by  the  victims  as  a  merciful  deliverance  from  the 
necessary  hardships  of  a  helpless  old  age. 

6.  The  religion  of  the  Eskimos  before  the  coming  of  Chris- 
tianity was  a  form  of  Shamanism,  presided  over  by  their  anga- 
koks  or  magicians.  Robert  Brown,  Ph.D.,  thus  summarizes 
what  has  been  written  on  their  pagan  beliefs  by  authorities  like 
Dr.  Rink :  "  The  whole  world  is,  according  to  the  pagan  Eski- 
mo's belief,  governed  by  inuas,  supernatural  powers  or 'owners,' 
each  of  whom  holds  his  sway  within  natural  limits.  Any  object 
or  individual  may  have  its,  his,  or  her  inua,  though  generally 
speaking  the  idea  of  an  inua  is  limited  to  certain  localities  or 
passions  —  such  as  a  mountain  or  lake,  or  strength  or  eating. 
The  soul,  for  instance,  is  the  inua  of  the  body.  The  earth  and 
the  sea  rest  on  pillars,  and  cover  an  under-world  accessible 
by  various  mountain  clefts,  or  by  various  entrances  from  the 
sea.  The  sky  is  the  floor  of  an  upper-world  to  which  some 
go  after  death,  while  others  —  good  or  bad  —  have  their  home 
in  the  under-world.  Here  are  the  dwellings  of  the  arsissut  — 
the  people  who  live  in  abundance.  The  upper  one,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  cold  and  hungry;  here  live  the  arssartut  or  ball-play- 
ers, so  called  from  their  playing  at  ball  with  a  walrus  head, 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  1 3 

which  gives  rise  to  the  aurora  borealis.  The  mediums  between 
the  inua  and  mankind  are  the  angakoks  or  wizards,  who  pos- 
sess the  pecuHar  gift  of  angakoonek,  —  or  the  state  of  being 
angakok  —  which  they  have  acquired  by  the  aid  of  guardian 
spirits  called  tornat,  who  again  are  ruled  by  tornarsuk,  the 
supreme  deity  or  devil  of  all.  Such  is  their  religion  in  the 
barest  possible  outline.  They  also  invoke  a  supernatural  influ- 
ence which  is  called  kusiunek  or  iliseenek,  which  may  be  trans- 
lated as  witchcraft :  this  is  believed  to  be  the  mystic  agency 
which  causes  sudden  sickness  or  death.  In  the  folk-lore  of 
the  Greenlanders,  as  of  other  nations,  divine  justice  manifests 
itself  chiefly  in  the  present  life,  though  they  have  a  faint  belief 
in  reward  or  punishment  in  the  future  world,  according  as  the 
individual  has  behaved  in  this." 

III.  The  Indians.  —  These  tribes  perpetuate  in  their  name 
the  mistaken  belief  of  Columbus  that  in  reaching  the  shores 
of  America  he  had  arrived  at  his  Asiatic  goal,  and  that  the 
inhabitants  were  natives  of  India.  While  not  as  homogeneous 
as  the  Eskimos,  they  are  sufficiently  alike  from  Alaska  to 
Cape  Horn  to  be  treated  under  common  headings. 

I.  Leading  Tribes  and  their  Distribution.  —  According  to 
a  recent  summary  of  Professor  Keane's,  these  are  as  follows : 
Athabascan  (Tinnc)  of  the  Yukon,  Mackenzie,  Rio  Grande 
and  Colorado  basins ;  Algonquian  from  the  Churchill  River  of 
Hudson  Bay  southward  to  Pamlico  Sound,  North  Carolina, 
and  from  Labrador  westward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains;  Sali- 
shan,  British  Columbia,  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Montana; 
Shahaptian,  Washington,  Oregon,  Idaho ;  Haida,  Queen  Char- 
lotte Archipelago;  Tsimsian,  coastlands  opposite  Queen  Char- 
lotte Archipelago ;  Shoshonean,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Nevada,  Utah, 
Wyoming,  Colorado,  Texas,  California;  Siouan  (Dakotan), 
Manitoba,  Wisconsin,  and  most  of  the  Missouri  and  Arkansas 
basins ;  Iroquoian,  shores  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  Upper 
St.  Lawrence  River,  parts  of  Virginia,  both  Carolinas,  Tennes- 
see, Alabama,  and  Georgia;  Muskogean,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Florida;    Caddoan,  Louisiana,  Texas, 


14  GEOGRAPHY  OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Nebraska,  Kansas,  North  Dakota;  Pueblos  {Zuni,  Tanoa, 
Moqui,  Keresa),  Arizona  and  New  Mexico;  Yuman,  Arizona, 
Lower  California;  Piman,  Northwest  Mexico;  Astec,  Mex- 
ico and  Nicaragua;  Maya-Quiche,  Vera  Cruz,  Tamaulipas, 
Yucatan,  Chiapas,  Guatemala;  Chibcha,  Colombia;  Carib, 
Venezuela,  the  Guianas,  Brazil ;  Tupi-Guarani,  Brazil,  Para- 
guay; Amara-suichua,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia;  Mocobi  and 
Vilela-Lule,  Gran  Chaco ;  Araucanian,  Chili ;  Tsoneca,  Pata- 
gonia ;  Ona  Yahgaii  and  Alacaluf,  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  some  of  these  state- 
ments refer  to  the  past  rather  than  to  the  present.  Thus  those 
tribes  spoken  of  as  residing  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  have 
become  extinct,  or  else  their  surviving  members  have  been 
removed  to  reservations  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  A  few 
small  reservations  in  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin,  contain  a  comparatively  small  number  of  Indians. 

2.  Though  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  characterize  stocks 
differing  considerably  one  from  another  —  particularly  in  the 
case  of  those  tribes  on  the  Northern  Pacific  coast,  which  are 
separately  considered  by  Professor  Ratzel  —  the  following 
traits  mentioned  by  Dr.  Greene  are  applicable  to  most  of  them  : 
In  physique  they  are  tall,  robust  and  erect  and  in  other  phys- 
ical qualities  they  approximate  closely  to  the  Mongolian  type. 
Despite  their  apparent  vigor  and  strength,  they  have  constitu- 
tions which  are  unable  to  withstand  the  epidemics,  liquors  and 
vices  introduced  by  white  men.  The  Indian  is  usually  proud 
and  reserved,  serious,  if  not  gloomy,  in  his  views  of  life ;  com- 
paratively indifferent  to  wit  or  pleasantry ;  vain  of  personal 
endowments ;  brave  and  fond  of  war,  yet  extremely  cautious 
and  taking  no  needless  risks ;  fond  of  gambling  and  drinking ; 
seemingly  indifferent  to  pain ;  kind  and  hospitable  to  strangers, 
yet  revengeful  and  cruel,  almost  beyond  belief,  to  those  who 
have  given  offense.  They  often  excel  in  horsemanship,  and 
as  a  rule  sight  and  hearing  are  wonderfully  acute. 

3.  Indian  homes  vary  greatly  owing  to  the  wide  range  of 
latitude  and  temperature  of  the  country  occupied.      Fuegia 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  1 5 

and  Alaska  conditions  are  the  most  trying,  though  Fuegian 
Indians  do  not  need  to  have  such  close  houses  as  their  brothers 
of  the  arctic  circle.  Those  who  dwell  within  the  tropics, 
on  the  contrary,  can  easily  live  under  the  rudest  sort  of  shelter. 
In  the  Dominion  and  among  those  who  are  not  affected  by 
civilization,  many  of  the  lodges  are  conical  and  their  skin 
coverings  are  adorned  with  paintings  of  legendary  or  historical 
scenes.  Formerly  scalp-locks  hung  upon  them.  Child-life 
abounds  and  dogs  growl  at  the  missionary  who  invades  their 
domain.  Dodging  heads  and  peering  eyes  within  are  soon 
satisfied  as  the  visitor  enters  and  speedily  seats  himself  to 
avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  blinding  smoke.  In  the  center 
of  the  lodge  and  prevented  from  spreading  by  a  circular  row 
of  stones  is  the  fire,  over  which  hangs  from  a  tripod  a  pot  or 
some  meat.  Each  member  of  the  family  has  a  bed,  the  head 
of  the  household  occupying  the  place  of  honor  opposite  the 
door.  As  these  radiate  from  the  center  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel,  in  a  small  lodge  one  needs  to  sleep  with  limbs  drawn 
up,  or  else  be  burned.  Guns,  bags  and  various  articles  of  neces- 
sity are  hung  about  the  lodge ;  even  the  baby  can  be  suspended 
as  it  lies  in  its  laced  bag  filled  with  soft  moss  and  ornamented 
with  gay  beads  or  porcupine  quills. 

The  communal  houses  that  are  found  in  Northwest  America 
usually  accommodate  from  six  to  eighteen  persons,  though 
Clarke  saw  one  that  was  230  feet  long  divided  by  a  long  pas- 
sageway into  two  rows  of  dwelling-places.  A  square  opening 
in  the  roof  permits  the  smoke  to  escape,  while  over  the  fire- 
place is  a  frame  for  drying  clothes,  smoking  fish,  etc.  "  Art 
is  represented  by  carved  totem-pillars  between  and  in  front  of 
the  houses,  fantastic  carvings  on  the  inner  walls,  Shamans' 
graves  gay  with  many  colors."  The  furniture  in  these  more 
elaborate  homes  consists  mainly  of  various  boxes  containing 
clothing  and  all  sorts  of  rubbish,  water  tubs,  wooden  troughs 
out  of  which  they  eat,  baskets  and  matting  pouches.  General 
disorder  reigns,  except  on  the  sleeping  benches,  where  fine 
mats  are  spread. 


1 6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

Examples  of  the  simplest  homes  are  furnished  by  the  abodes 
of  nomadic  tribes  in  South  America.  Professor  Ratzel  writes 
of  these :  "  The  architecture  has  httle  beyond  the  rectangular 
or  square  ground-plan  to  distinguish  it,  except  a  general  shaki- 
ness  and  want  of  durability.  Some  tribes  do  almost  entirely 
without  huts;  the  only  traces  left  by  those  of  the  Botucudos 
are  a  few  withered  palm-leaves.  Four  posts,  four  walls  of 
bamboo  and  a  thatch  of  leaves  are  the  elements  which  con- 
stantly recur.  Three  stones  for  the  cooking-pot  to  stand  on 
and  one  or  two  hammocks  compose  the  furniture.  The  tribes 
that  float  about  on  the  channels  of  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco, 
like  the  Oyampis,  hang  up  their  hammocks  every  day  under  a 
fresh  construction  improvised  of  young  trees.  The  booths  of 
the  Tobas  are  provided  with  walls  on  three  sides  only,  and  the 
gaucho-huts  of  the  Guaharibos  are  conical  and  pointed,  with 
so  narrow  a  floor  that  the  occupants  have  hardly  room  to 
squat." 

4.  The  languages  of  the  American  Indians  are  estimated  to 
equal  in  number  those  of  Europe  and  Asia  combined.  Yet 
all  of  them  —  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Eskimo  also  —  are 
marked  by  the  common  quality  of  polysynthesis,  holophrasm, 
or  encapsulation,  as  this  peculiarity  is  variously  called.  By 
it  is  meant  that  the  Indians  "  express  their  ideas  of  objects 
.and  actions  precisely  as  they  are  presented  to  their  eyes  and 
ears ;  that  is,  in  all  their  compound  relations."  Hence  there  is 
a  "  more  or  less  complete  amalgamation  of  the  prominent  ele- 
ments of  the  different  words  of  a  sentence  or  clause  into  one 
long  complex  word."  Thus,  to  take  a  simple  illustration  from 
the  Mexican,  goat  is  kwa-kwauh  tentsone,  literally,  "  head- 
tree-lip-hair  "  —  that  is,  "  the  horned  and  bearded  one."  A  bet- 
ter example  is  the  following  Eskimo  expression,  which  is  really 
a  sentence,  but  in  the  native  mind  is  one  prolonged  word  serv- 
ing in  the  place  of  seventeen  English  words :  Savigiksiniariar- 
tokasuaromaryotittogog  —  that  is,  "he  says  that  you  will  also 
go  away  quickly  in  like  manner  and  buy  a  pretty  knife." 

5.  As  to  Indian  literature  it  is  wanting,  except  as  a  few 


THE   ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  ij 

publications  are  printed  to-day  by  civilized  tribes,  or  as  whites, 
notably  Dr.  Brinton,  have  collected  oral  and  written  material 
in  recent  years.  Indeed,  as  Ratzel  has  remarked,  one  of  the 
most  important  distinctions  between  Old  and  New  World  civ- 
ilization lies  in  writing.  While  the  more  cultured  Indian  races, 
such  as  the  Mayas  of  Yucatan  and  the  Incas  of  Peru,  had 
advanced  far  beyond  the  painted  stones  of  the  savage  tribes, 
containing  a  rude  symbolic  picture  language,  the  knotted  string 
quipus  of  Peru  and  the  more  advanced  symbols  of  the  Mayas 
still  fall  far  short  of  writing  in  the  sense  of  the  older  Eg\^ptian 
hieroglyphics  even,  or  of  the  Chinese  ideographs.  Sequoyah, 
a  German  half-breed,  who  invented  the  Cherokee  syllabary, 
Samson  Occtmi,  author  of  English  h}Tnns,  among  which  is 
the  one  beginning  "  Awaked  by  Sinai's  awful  sound,"  and 
George  Copway,  a  well-known  journalist  and  author,  are  ex- 
amples of  what  can  be  done  along  literary  lines,  while  in  the 
realm  of  orator}'  the  Indian  is  far  above  the  average  of  civil- 
ized races. 

6.  Social  Conditions.  —  In  North  ^Ajnerica  these  varv-, 
largely  because  of  the  possession  of  the  horse.  Tribes  without 
this  valuable  servant  are  mainly  forest  dwellers  and  are  quite 
scattered,  or  else  live  in  the  remote  North.  Those  having  the 
horse  usually  occupy  the  plains,  and  are  more  settled  in  their 
habits,  though  not  necessarily  so. 

In  the  Northwest  and  along  the  Pacific,  communal  life  is 
emphasized,  especially  in  a  community  work-room  where  the 
men  make  their  various  utensils,  boats,  etc.  Until  within  a 
few  years,  that  section  of  the  country  knew  nothing  of  the 
barabara  containing  a  single  family;  though  at  present  even 
in  that  part  of  the  continent  it  is  common  to  find  single  fam- 
ilies living  by  themselves. 

Polygamy  exists,  though  not  so  commonly  as  when  wars 
were  frequent  and  those  thus  made  widows  were  obliged  to 
marry  a  member  of  their  own  tribe  or  were  taken  captive  by 
the  enemy.  Only  the  comparatively  well-to-do  are  able  to  sup- 
port more  than  one  wife. 


iS  GEOGRAPHY  OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

Slavery,  mainly  following  war,  but  also  due  to  purchase  and 
sometimes  to  gambling,  is  disappearing,  thanks  to  the  present 
rarity  of  war  and  to  proximity  of  whites.  Until  within  a  few 
years,  the  price  of  these  slaves  was  from  $60  to  $300.  Their 
lot  was  pitiable,  especially  when  an  attempt  to  escape  was 
made,  as  it  resulted  in  death  by  most  horrible  tortures.  In 
the  Indian  Territory  within  the  United  States  a  singular  com- 
plication arose  during  the  Civil  War.  Many  Indians  owned 
slaves  and  their  status  after  the  Emancipation  Proclamation 
was  unique.  As  a  result  there  are  in  that  Territory  many 
freedmen  who  are,  however,  reckoned  as  Indians  with  their 
former  masters.  This  class,  of  course,  is  very  much  diminished 
at  the  present  time  though  their  descendants  are  still  Negro- 
Indians.  In  South  America  the  condition  of  many  of  the  Indi- 
ans is  little  different  from  that  of  slaves,  though  in  this  case 
they  are  under  foreign  masters. 

When  unaffected  by  the  whites,  the  government  is  essentially 
patriarchal,  every  man  ruling  his  own  household ;  though  the 
tribes  are  governed  by  hereditary  chiefs  who  are  treated  most 
respectfully.  With  the  incoming  of  civilization,  the  man  who 
can  best  deal  with  whites  is  likely  to  be  more  powerful  than 
the  chief  himself.  Under  this  primitive  regime  crimes  are  pun- 
ished by  the  chief  sufferer,  who  inflicts  well-established  penal- 
ties. Some  evils,  such  as  infanticide,  are  not  regarded  as  crim- 
inal and  so  go  unpunished. 

Those  observances  which  hind  the  members  of  a  tribe  most 
closely  together  and  frequently  result  in  uprisings  against  the 
whites  are  the  solemn  dances,  closely  akin  to  those  more  relig- 
ious in  character  mentioned  in  the  next  section.  These  fre- 
quently lead  to  a  perfect  frenzy  of  enthusiasm.  The  old  spirit 
of  independence  is  also  kept  alive  by  the  quieter  gatherings, 
when  the  aged  men  describe  most  vividly  the  old  hunting  days 
and  exultingly  tell  of  scalps,  battles,  glorious  captures  and 
well  nigh  fatal  wounds.  Leaving  such  an  exciting  circle  and 
seeing  the  home  of  an  agent  or  missionary,  they  are  confronted 
by  the  proofs  of  pale-face  power.    The  bitter  hatred  rankling 


THE  ABORIGINES  OF  AMERICA  1 9 

in  their  breast  is  excited  thereby  and  readily  bursts  into  a 
destroying  flame  at  the  first  favorable  opportunity. 

7,  Indian  Religions.  —  This  element  enters  largely  into  the 
constitution  of  Indian  society,  particularly  the  totemic  bond. 
The  "  eponymous  ancestor  of  the  totem  was  a  mythical  ex- 
istence and  a  sort  of  deity.  Theoretically  all  members  of  the 
totem  were  kinsfolk  of  one  blood."  The  utmost  reverence  is 
usually  shown  this  tutelary  animal  or  plant,  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  the  totem  will  reciprocate.  Conventional  designs 
representing  this  deity,  and  elaborately  carved  representations 
of  it  found  on  totem  posts,  especially  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
testify  to  the  belief  in  this  social  and  religious  power.  More 
powerful,  however,  in  its  influence  on  the  individual  is  the 
personal  totem  or  manitou.  It  is  usually  an  animal  and  is 
revealed  in  a  dream  at  the  first  fast  undertaken  when  the  In- 
dian becomes  of  age.  Thenceforward  this  animal  is  wor- 
shipped, and  his  skin  or  likeness  is  thereafter  borne  about  on 
his  person. 

While  zootheism,  including  many  animate  objects  besides 
totems,  is  very  prominent  in  the  religion  of  the  Indians,  they 
also  exalt  the  great  objects  in  the  heavens  and  the  powers  and 
forces  of  nature  above  the  lower  gods,  thus  arriving  at  what 
Miiller  calls  physitheism.  Confused  sometimes  with  this  wor- 
ship, and  rarely  more  than  a  step  beyond  it,  is  their  belief  in, 
and  worship  of,  the  Great  Spirit.  Less  widely  prevalent  is 
hero  worship  —  that  of  Hiawatha  for  example  —  and  the  wor- 
ship of  ancestors. 

Prayer  and  fasting,  demanding  as  a  prerequisite  cleanliness 
of  body,  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  in  the  long 
and  difficult  journey  to  the  land  of  shadows  which  most  be- 
lieve to  be  the  same  place  for  all  whether  good  or  bad,  are 
other  features  of  Indian  religion.  In  the  central  western  por- 
tion of  South  America,  especially,  the  worship  of  the  sun  was 
a  prominent  feature. 

The  Messiah  Craze  of  1890,  which  extended  northward  from 
the  States  into  the  Dominion,  is  an  incident  illustrating  their 


20  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

hope  of  regaining  once  more  their  old  hunting  grounds,  and 
of  their  ultimate  triumph  over  the  hated  white  man.  It  may 
lead  to  many  serious  results,  as  was  the  case  after  their  failure 
in  the  Minnesota  Massacre  to  receive  an  answer  to  their 
prayers. 

The  Indian  medicine  man  strongly  resembles  the  Eskimo 
angakok,  as  both  of  them  are  in  reality  Shamans.  In  their 
worship,  however,  their  is  a  wide  difference.  It  has  been 
aptly  characterized  as  terpsichorean.  Seasons  of  worship  are 
observed  usually  in  four-day  periods,  when  the  medicine  man 
recounts  to  the  people  mythical  tales,  creation  myths,  and  the 
doings  of  the  gods  in  general.  Various  dances  follow  which 
are  extended  to  such  a  length  that  the  people  become  crazed, 
and  the  more  susceptible  fall  into  a  trance.  "  These  terpsi- 
chorean ceremonies  are  largely  invocations  for  abundant  har- 
vests, rain,  snow,  successful  hunting  and  fishing,  and  for 
health  and  prosperity  generally ;  and  on  especial  occasions  for 
success  in  war.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  a  more  impres- 
sive scene  than  the  close  of  a  war  dance  which  has  been  con- 
tinued for  four  days,  when  the  hell  of  passions  seems  to  be 
open,  and  there  pours  forth  a  stream  of  weird  song,  ululation 
and  imprecation,  accompanied  with  symbolic  mimicry  of  the 
horrors  of  war." 

8.  Government  Efforts  for  the  Indians.  —  Something  must 
be  said  of  the  efforts  made  by  the  Dominion  and  the  United 
States  Governments  for  the  amelioration  of  the  unfortunate 
conditions  surrounding  the  Indian. 

(i)  In  the  Dominion,  where  perhaps  the  authorities  have 
best  solved  the  Indian  problem,  the  following  factors  seem  to 
have  largely  accounted  for  their  success.  In  the  first  place 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Indian  population  there  is  not 
so  dense  as  in  the  States,  being  only  a  little  over  100,000  in 
the  vast  Dominion,  nor  are  they  so  hard  pressed  by  the  influx 
of  white  settlers.  Again,  the  French  methods  of  dealing  with 
the  aborigines,  which  are  in  the  main  followed  by  the  British 
Government,  have  led  to  a  friendliness  which  is  quite  marked. 


THE   ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  21 

The  authorities  have  always  endeavored  to  deal  fairly  and 
generously  by  the  Indians,  so  that  they  have  never  had  any 
genuine  Indian  v^ar  in  the  Dominion.  Moreover,  the  system 
of  mounted  police  and  of  Indian  agents,  the  latter  trained  and 
continued  in  office  through  life,  has  brought  about  such  a 
feeling  of  careful  oversight  and  certainty  of  punishment  in 
case  of  necessity,  that  there  have  been  few  collisions  between 
the  red  men  and  those  whom  they  regard  as  on  the  whole 
beneficent  rulers.  It  should  also  be  added  that  under  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company's  rule  no  Indian  ever  had  occasion  to 
complain  of  injustice.  Consequently  few  crimes  were  com- 
mitted and  "  bars  and  bolts  were  not  needed  on  any  doors." 
Another  feature  of  the  British  system  in  the  more  settled  parts 
of  the  Dominion  is  the  allotment  of  farms  to  Indians,  where 
they  are  under  the  training  of  persons  appointed  to  this  work 
and  are  leavened  by  white  society  near  them.  In  1896  nearly 
two-thirds  of  them  were  located  where  civilizing  and  Christian 
influences  were  near.  The  authorities  are  also  especially  care- 
ful about  the  prohibition  of  liquor  selling.  A  Canadian 
speaker,  Egerton  Young,  at  the  Mohonk  Indian  Conference 
of  1900  could  with  much  truth  assert:  "  In  Canada  we  have 
no  Indian  question.  We  get  along  very  nicely  with  our  Indi- 
ans there.  They  are  all  civilized  and  wear  the  white  man's 
garb.  They  live  on  farms  and  till  their  own  land.  They  have 
plenty  of  milk,  eggs,  corn,  potatoes,  and  other  nice  things. 
We  have  no  trouble  about  marriage  laws  in  Canada.  The 
law  is  the  same  for  the  Indian  as  for  the  white.  If  an  Indian 
has  two  wives  he  is  tried  for  bigamy.  Our  greatest  difficulty 
is  with  the  whiskey  and  the  miserable  saloons  on  the  border." 
This  distinguished  speaker  had  especially  in  mind,  however, 
Indians  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Dominion  where  conditions 
are  more  nearly  ideal  than  elsewhere. 

(2)  In  the  United  States  one  can  point  to  no  such  enviable 
record.  As  the  veteran  Indian  advocate,  ex-Senator  Dawes, 
has  shown,  the  initial  difficulty  in  the  States  was  the  acknowl- 
edgement in  early  colonial  times  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  red 


22  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

man,  which  was  an  actual  fact  at  the  time.  Later  on,  as  the 
whites  pressed  westward,  the  hunting-grounds  of  these  Indi- 
ans were  needed  and  the  tribes  were  tossed  from  one  meridian 
to  another,  until  finally  the  reservation  plan  was  adopted. 
Even  these  places  of  refuge,  which  the  Government  solemnly 
promised  to  hold  inviolate  from  the  white  settler,  were  changed 
from  time  to  time  until  the  Indian  now  has  scarcely  any  land 
east  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  area  of  all  the  reservations,  from  which  the  Indian  is 
not  supposed  to  depart,  is  approximately  equal  to  that  of  the 
New  England  and  Middle  States  without  Pennsylvania. 
Within  these  great  prison  houses  they  are  supposed  to  have 
sufficient  means  of  subsistence ;  but  after  killing  off  the  game, 
this  area  becomes  inadequate.  Farming  and  other  means  of 
gaining  a  livelihood  are  distasteful,  and  what  happened  in  the 
Indian  Territory,  given  to  the  Five  Civilized  Tribes,  is  true 
to  a  limited  degree  of  other  sections.  The  Government  had 
covenanted  to  prevent  white  men  from  entering  that  territory, 
but  a  railroad  in  some  way  gained  a  right  to  extend  its  lines 
through  it.  This  brought  in  white  station  agents  and  others, 
until  finally  the  whites  in  the  territory  numbered  some  330,000, 
a  far  larger  number  than  the  Indians  themselves. 

But  this  territorial  problem  has  not  been  the  greatest  in- 
justice to  which  they  have  been  subjected.  The  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Government  Report  of  the  Board  of  Indian  Com- 
missioners for  1900  admirably  summarizes  the  various  wrongs 
under  which  they  are  suffering,  as  also  some  of  the  problems 
to  be  solved.  These  recommendations  will  bring  the  present 
situation  in  the  United  States  clearly  before  the  reader,  (i) 
Stopping  the  issue  of  rations  to  able-bodied  Indians  who  will 
not  work.  (2)  A  system  of  permanent  records  of  all  mar- 
riages, births,  and  deaths  of  Indians  was  strongly  urged.  (3) 
It  was  recommended  that  a  law  be  passed  requiring  all  mar- 
riages of  Indians  to  be  duly  solemnized.  This  would  put  an 
end  at  once  to  the  easy  toleration  of  polygamy  by  the  United 
States  Government  in  dealing  with  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  its 


THE   ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA  23 

people,  more  than  60,000  of  whom  have  already  become  citi- 
zens. (4)  Greater  attention  to  cattle  breeding  and  herding 
was  recommended,  since  it  would  furnish  a  civilizing  occupa- 
tion for  Indians  whose  reservations  are  not  adapted  to  agri- 
culture, but  are  well  suited  for  grazing.  (5)  Another  recom- 
mendation strongly  advocated  was  the  breaking  up  of  tribal 
funds  into  separate  holdings.  This  would  put  an  end  to  the 
expectation  of  perpetual  inheritance  and  new  claims  through 
an  indefinite  number  of  generations  by  people  who  may  claim 
a  strain  of  Indian  blood,  and  therefore  a  share  in  undivided 
Indian  tribal  funds.  (6)  A  compulsory  law  for  school  at- 
tendance for  Indian  children  was  an  even  more  important 
recommendation.  The  Board  of  Commissioners  urged  that 
there  be  no  separate  schools,  but  that,  so  soon  as  possible,  the 
children  attend  schools  in  common  with  the  whites.  (7) 
Caution  in  leasing  Indian  lands  was  also  urged  as  being  very 
necessary ;  since,  as  in  the  case  of  rations,  this  tends  to  increase 
the  Indian's  laziness  and  dislike  for  manual  labor.  (8)  Other 
points,  more  general  in  character,  which  this  Board,  includ- 
ing some  of  the  strongest  Christian  philanthropists  in  the 
country,  recommended  are  as  follows :  The  need  of  a  compre- 
hensive, unified  policy  in  Indian  affairs;  the  recognition  of 
the  individual,  not  the  tribe ;  the  strengthening  of  personality 
and  of  the  family;  the  discharge  of  needless  agents,  which 
would  result  in  the  necessity  placed  upon  the  Indian  to  manage 
his  own  property  and  affairs ;  the  need  of  school-gardening,  of 
instruction  in  agriculture,  of  the  practice  in  cooking  for  a 
group  of  three  to  six  persons  for  Indian  girls  in  government 
schools,  and  the  need  of  surgical  instruments  for  the  agencies 
and  for  school  physicians;  the  allotment  of  individual  hold- 
ings to  the  Mission  Indians  of  California;  a  more  careful  and 
scientific  regulation  of,  and  expenditure  for,  irrigation  and 
water  supply  which,  if  not  attended  to,  makes  many  reserva- 
tions practically  barren;  for  the  20,000  Navajos  with  but  200 
children  in  school,  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  industrial 
day-schools;  and  above  all,  the  appointment  of  Indian  agents 


24  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

only  on  the  ground  of  their  experience  and  fitness  for  the 
place  and  the  withdrawal  of  these  positions  from  partisan  allot- 
ment. 

IV.  The  Decay  of  the  Lower  Races.  — While  this  prob- 
lem is  present  in  connection  with  many  other  nature  peoples, 
notably  in  the  Pacific  Islands,  where  it  is  again  alluded  to, 
it  can  best  be  treated  at  this  point,  as  it  is  a  most  serious  ques- 
tion for  the  missionary  among  the  Indians  and  Eskimos,  and 
as  here  we  have  fuller  statistics  than  in  other  countries  so 
affected. 

1.  A  partial  knowledge  of  the  aboriginal  Americans  leads 
one  to  believe  that  their  viability  is  not  great.  Even  before 
the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  "  periodical  pestilences  fear- 
fully reduced  the  number  of  the  population.  The  Spanish- 
Americans  have  a  saying  that  when  an  Indian  falls  sick  he 
dies;  and  the  expression  is  scarcely  too  strong  for  the  facts." 

2.  Statistics  gathered  since  the  discovery  of  America  bear 
conflicting  testimony  in  this  matter.  Thus  in  the  Dominion 
they  seem  to  prove  that  the  race  is  increasing;  yet  those  that 
know  the  Indians  best  believe  that  the  figures  are  raised  for 
the  sake  of  the  annual  treaty  payment.  In  Alaska,  where  there 
is  no  such  inducement  to  falsify,  they  seem  to  be  dying  out. 

3.  If  the  reasons  for  this  decay  are  sought,  those  who  have 
spent  years  among  them  assign  as  the  causes,  drunkenness, 
small  pox,  measles,  venereal  diseases,  dysentery,  change  of 
dress  and  food,  idleness  and  other  changes  incident  to  reserva- 
tion life,  and  mental  depression  arising  from  their  feeling  that 
opposition  to  the  white  domination  is  hopeless.  As  secondary 
causes,  are  noted  famine,  infanticide  and  abortion.  The  al- 
leged non-fertility  of  savage  women  after  bearing  children 
to  white  men,  and  changes  due  to  hybridization,  apparently 
have  little  effect. 

4.  Can  this  decay  be  checked f  or  is  it  necessarily  fatal? 
There  is  something  well  worth  considering  in  the  observations 
that  Dr.  Rink  makes  concerning  the  change  of  food  due  to  the 
coming  of  the  Danes  to  Greenland  and  the  difficulties  arising 


THE   ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA  25 

from  the  destruction  of  native  commerce  by  new  trade  condi- 
tions ;  also  in  the  statement  of  Nansen  as  to  the  resuhs  of 
wearing  thick  garments  for  decency's  sake  in  hot  Greenland 
huts  whence  the  man  must  go  forth  to  icy  waters  and  bitter 
cold.  Dr.  Brown  may  likewise  be  correct  in  reluctantly  ad- 
mitting that  the  Alaskan's  thick  coat  of  dirt  and  grease  may 
be  removed  to  the  physical  detriment  of  the  native  imbued 
with  the  new  idea  of  cleanliness. 

That  decay  is  not  necessary,  however,  is  proved  by  the  more 
accurate  statistics  of  the  United  States,  of  those  portions  of 
the  Dominion  where  they  are  carefully  gathered,  and  above  all, 
by  those  of  Greenland  where  the  enumeration  is  accurate  and 
the  utmost  care  is  taken  to  shield  the  natives  from  universal 
vices,  liquor,  etc.,  of  the  European  and  to  surround  them  with 
helpful  incentives.  Eskimos  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Davis 
Strait,  who  were  once  so  numerous,  are  reduced  to  a  mere 
handful  because  of  the  frequent  visits  of  the  whalers  and  at- 
tendant evils,  and  because  no  such  wise  provisions  exist  there 
as  the  Danes  have  enforced  in  Greenland. 

5.  This  Decay  not  Chargeable  to  Missions.  —  While  Hans 
Egede,  the  modern  discoverer  of  Greenland,  was  a  missionary, 
it  is  likewise  true  that  he  went  to  that  land,  not  as  a  representa- 
tive of  a  missionary  society,  but  rather  as  the  head  of  the  secu- 
lar trading  colony.  How  many  of  the  supposed  evils  that 
Nansen  virulently  charges  against  the  early  missionaries  are 
due  to  missions  and  how  much  to  trade  he  does  not  state.  Per- 
haps the  best  answer  to  his  popular  tirade  against  missionaries 
is  found  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Rink,  whom  he  always  quotes  as 
his  highest  authority  on  Greenland  matters :  "  In  various  dis- 
cussions on  matters  belonging  to  the  history  of  culture  we 
even  find  the  question  treated,  whether  one  nation  may  be 
more  or  less  adapted  for  Christianity  than  another.  If,  judg- 
ing merely  from  the  outer  appearance  of  the  social  state,  this 
comparison  has  to  be  made,  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  an- 
cient Greenlanders  might,  even  more  than  those  of  highly 
civilized  societies,  appear  to  conform  to  the  social  conditions 


26  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  the  earliest  Christian  countries.  Passing  from  the  Chris- 
tian rehgion  itself  to  its  first  propagators  in  Greenland,  the 
author  is  so  far  from  accusing  them  of  having  the  lion's  share 
in  the  harmful  influences  above  mentioned,  that  on  the  con- 
trary they  must  be  regarded  as  true  benefactors  of  the 
natives."  We  may  add  that  Nansen's  criticism  and  that  of 
others  written  in  a  similar  vein  would  charge  the  missionary 
makers  of  modern  Europe  with  all  the  evils  that  have  subse- 
quently been  found  in  those  countries  and  that  are  connected 
with  a  civilization  not  always  truly  Christian. 


PART   II.— MISSIONARY 

I.  Work  for  the  Eskimo.  —  i.  In  Greenland.  —  So  far  as 
the  Western  Hemisphere  is  concerned,  mission  work  began 
in  Greenland.  More  than  900  years  ago,  when  Erik  led  his 
colonies  to  these  icy  shores,  they  brought  with  them  Christian- 
ity. Thus  we  read  of  twelve  churches,  several  cloisters  and 
even  one  nunnery.  It  is  fitting,  therefore,  that  in  this  land 
modern  missionaries  should  have  almost  completed  their  work. 
With  the  exception  of  a  small  colony  on  the  eastern  coast, 
missions  among  heathen  are  not  being  prosecuted  in  that  land, 
though  Danish  Christians  still  oversee  and  aid  the  churches 
among  the  evangelized  Eskimos.  The  Moravians  withdrew 
in  1900  from  their  old  field  for  the  reason  that  they  considered 
their  work  of  evangelization  completed.  Their  converts  are 
now  under  the  care  of  the  Danish  Government  mission. 

The  station  on  the  eastern  coast  just  alluded  to  was  started 
in  1894  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Riittel  at  Angmagssalik,  and  is  like- 
wise cared  for  by  the  Government.  This  is  a  most  isolated 
station,  though  the  missionary  receives  communications  as 
often  as  those  on  many  South  Sea  Islands,  namely,  once  a  year. 
The  difficulties  which  he  has  experienced  in  learning  the  lan- 
guage and  becoming  acquainted  with  the  people  remind  one 
of  the  earlier  trials  of  the  missionaries  on  the  western  coast. 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  2/ 

The  tendency  of  the  Eskimos  is  to  annoy  new  missionaries  by 
grotesque  mimicry.  It  has  been  their  lot  to  have  their  auditors 
Hsten  to  exhortations  and  then  pretend  to  fall  asleep ;  or  to  ask 
that  hymns  be  sung,  only  to  drown  them  with  drums  or  howl- 
ing. Learning  the  alphabet  may  be  facilitated  by  offering  a 
fishhook  for  every  letter  learned,  but  when  able  to  read  the 
Bible  the  people  may  tell  of  some  wonderful  performance  by 
their  angakoks  for  every  miracle  recorded  in  Scripture.  The 
nomadic  character  of  the  Eskimos  during  parts  of  the  year 
also  proves  an  obstacle.  No  special  health  difficulty  is  ordi- 
narily experienced,  nor  would  any  one  with  good  lungs  suffer 
seriously  in  that  climate  despite  the  low  temperature  of  winter. 
Missionaries  note  the  singular  simplicity  and  childlikeness  of 
the  natives  which  offer  a  fertile  soil  for  the  Gospel  when  once 
it  finds  lodgment.  On  the  other  hand,  dulness  and  sensuality 
with  a  tendency  to  find  in  physical  pleasure  the  highest  good 
are  great  obstacles.  In  that  section  of  Greenland  amulets  and 
fetishes,  in  the  absence  of  idols,  are  prominent  objects  of  re- 
gard; and  these  are  employed  by  the  wizards  or  angakoks 
against  the  missionary.  A  dim  belief  in  God,  though  the  people 
speak  of  him  as  a  being  far  above  their  comprehension  and 
reach,  would  seem  to  be  a  good  starting-point  for  the  mis- 
sionary. As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  of  no  special  value.  The 
natives  distinguish  only  between  men  of  different  degrees  of 
skill,  and  do  not  otherwise  recognize  any  special  social  dis- 
tinctions. Thus  a  man  would  be  despised  who  was  a  poor 
fisherman,  but  moral  and  immoral  qualities  would  not  divide 
the  community.  The  Danish  missionaries  who  carry  on  the 
work  among  the  Christianized  Eskimos  have  a  seminary  for 
training  workers,  who  to-day,  as  at  the  inception  of  the  enter- 
prise, find  that  the  simple  story  of  the  cross  secures  the  readiest 
hearing.  If  one  asks  for  other  results  of  work  in  Greenland, 
they  can  be  found  from  Cape  Farewell  to  Upernivik  in  a  Chris- 
tian community  with  all  that  one  expects  to  see  associated  with 
it  among  that  grade  of  people.  Christian  schools  and  school- 
books,  hymn-books,  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  in  con- 


28  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

stant  use  and  the  Old  soon  to  be  completed,  are  literary  achieve- 
ments that  mean  much  when  one  considers  the  intractable 
nature  of  the  language.  A  lack  of  self-dependence  so  greatly 
needed  in  church  development  has  perhaps  been  the  result  of 
the  domination  of  Denmark.  So  paternal  a  government  being 
in  charge  of  the  country,  self-development  has  been  checked. 
The  outlook  is  not  especially  hopeful;  since  in  this  barren 
country  with  the  special  problems  incident  to  contact  with 
civilization,  the  race  cannot  very  largely  increase. 

2.  Labrador  Missions.  —  Here  the  Moravians  are  the  prom- 
inent workers,  though  the  Labrador  Medical  Mission  is  also  in 
the  field.  When  the  preacher  in  his  parish  visitation  finds  a 
woman  preparing  bacon  by  chewing  it  before  putting  it  in  the 
frying-pan,  and  is  liable  to  have  the  church  lamps  fail  him  be- 
cause the  oil  has  congealed,  one  can  realize  that  work  is  prose- 
cuted under  unusual  conditions.  Another  phase  of  the  Mora- 
vian work,  found  also  in  other  fields  under  their  charge,  such 
as  Surinam  and  South  Africa,  is  that  of  trade  carried  on  under 
the  superintendance  of  the  secular  arm  of  the  Mission.  This 
plan  has  led  more  than  once  to  serious  difficulties  with  the 
natives,  particularly  in  Labrador ;  hence  its  aims  and  necessity 
should  be  stated.  Professor  Hamilton  writes  concerning  this 
matter  as  follows :  "  From  almost  the  inception  of  the  work  in 
Labrador  this  had  been  carried  on  for  a  variety  of  reasons  — 
not  to  make  profit  as  a  main  purpose,  but  that  the  comforts 
and  necessaries  of  life  might  be  procured  by  the  natives  with- 
out their  being  at  the  mercy  of  conscienceless  speculators, 
whose  transient  visits  moreover  inevitably  produced  demor- 
alizing results,  and  that  the  effort  to  advance  the  people  in  the 
scale  of  civilization  might  be  facilitated  by  their  being  furnished 
an  opportunity  to  dispose  of  the  products  of  their  industry  at 
fair  rates.  Besides,  the  maintenance  of  a  vessel  afforded  the 
mission  its  only  sure  connection  with  Europe."  The  vessel  re- 
ferred to  has  been  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  a  succession 
of  ships  named  "  Llarmony,"  but  at  present  they  are  dependent 
upon  transient  vessels. 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF  AMERICA  29 

It  is  most  interesting  to  see  how  these  people  appreciate  the 
Word  of  God,  and  to  note  the  spiritual  growth  of  some  of  them. 
Early  in  the  last  century,  when  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  was 
provided  for  them,  the  Eskimos  of  their  own  accord  collected 
and  sent  to  England  what  they  could  as  a  thank-offering  for 
the  much  prized  book.  An  indication  of  the  kind  of  life  fos- 
tered among  the  more  thoughtful  of  them  is  seen  in  the  remarks 
of  one  of  their  number :  "  I  often  think  on  rising  in  the  morn- 
ing, About  this  time  my  Saviour  was  for  my  sins  crowned  with 
thorns,  mocked  and  scourged;  about  noon  I  think,  Now  my 
Saviour  was  condemned  to  death ;  and  in  the  afternoon  I  re- 
member his  crucifixion  and  death,  and  the  full  redemption  he 
wrought  for  me;  and  in  these  thoughts  the  time  passes  very 
quickly," 

On  the  other  hand  Labrador  missionaries  are  tried  beyond 
measure  by  the  sins  of  their  converts.  Thus,  after  some  of 
them  had  become  offended  by  fancied  wrongs  received  from 
the  missionary  trader,  an  assembly  was  held  at  the  house  of  the 
ringleader  at  which  an  actual  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
claimed  to  have  been  witnessed.  "  A  post  in  the  house  was 
worshipped  as  the  cross  of  Christ,  and  the  Eskimos  were 
fetched  in  from  neighboring  houses  that  they  might  kneel  be- 
fore it.  The  leaders  then  breathed  upon  their  hands  folded  on 
their  breasts,  thus  imparting  to  them  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  also  travestied."  Hap- 
pily these  extravagances  soon  vanished.  In  the  midst  of  such 
experiences  of  encouragement  and  sadness  the  Mission  moves 
forward,  establishing  new  stations  and  rarely  giving  one  up, 
until  twelve  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  communicants. 

Another  enterprise  of  small  pretensions  but  of  great  useful- 
ness is  that  of  Dr.  Grenfell,  the  Labrador  Medical  Mission.  In 
his  hospital  yacht,  he  steams  about  from  point  to  point,  healing 
the  sick  among  the  Eskimos  and  living  and  preaching  the 
gospel.  Two  small  hospitals  have  been  established  and  are 
very  greatly  appreciated.  Mr.  Peck  of  the  C.  M.  S.  has  done 
some  excellent  Labrador  work,  first  from  his  old  station  on 


30  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  Little  Whale  River,  Hudson's  Bay,  and  more  recently 
through  a  small  book  furnished  the  Ungava  Bay  Eskimos  from 
his  present  headquarters  on  Cumberland  Sound.  One  of  the 
Moravians  reports  that  the  seed  sown  by  Mr.  Peck  and  nour- 
ished by  the  truth  contained  in  his  book,  embodying  in  syllabic 
writing  selections  of  Scripture,  prayers  and  hymns,  had  so 
prepared  the  way  that  "  it  was  touching  to  see  how  the  major- 
ity of  them  literally  devoured  my  words."  Upon  hearing  Mr. 
Stecker  sing  hymns  the  words  of  which  could  be  understood 
they  were  in  ecstacies  and  immediately  took  some  of  them 
down. 

3.  Eskimos  of  the  Dominion.  —  As  one  passes  from  Labra- 
dor northwestward  toward  Alaska,  he  is  delighted  to  find  true 
friends  of  the  Eskimos  laboring  under  the  Church  Missionary 
Society.  The  sailor  missionary  to  these  people.  Rev.  Edmund 
Peck,  began  his  labors  on  the  southeast  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
in  1876.  Setting  himself  the  task  of  securing  from  eighty  to 
one  hundred  Eskimo  words  a  day  either  from  the  people  or 
from  a  Labrador  Testament,  he  was  soon  able  to  teach  those 
of  Little  Whale  River  in  an  iron  church  forty  feet  by  twenty 
that  he  had  erected.  After  fourteen  years'  labor  on  the  shores 
of  Hudson's  Bay  he  went  boldly  northward  and  with  an  asso- 
ciate began  work  among  the  natives  of  Blacklead  Island,  in 
Cumberland  Bay.  Here  we  see  them  fascinating  the  people 
with  lantern  slides,  building  most  laboriously  a  church  out  of 
whalebone  and  seal-skin  only  to  have  it  eaten  up  by  hungry 
dogs  at  night,  trying  to  find  equivalents  for  sheep  and  other 
unknown  terms  as  they  translate  the  Scriptures,  delighting  the 
children  with  a  Christmas  tree  made  of  two  barrel  hoops,  liv- 
ing in  snow  houses,  seeing  their  snow  church  broken  through 
by  dogs  that  drank  up  the  oil  in  the  lamps,  and  so  impressing 
the  Gospel  upon  the  people  that  a  woman  started  out  and  trav- 
eled a  great  distance  along  the  shores  of  Davis  Strait,  taking 
her  books  with  her  and  teaching  the  natives.  No  wonder  that 
this  converted  sailor,  who  after  his  conversion  ''  was  keenly 
desirous  of  being  sent  to  the  wildest  and  roughest  mission 


THE   ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA  3 1 

field  in  the  world,  if  only  he  might  there  be  privileged  to  win 
souls  for  Christ,"  should  be  able  to  say,  after  twenty-three 
years  of  service  among  the  Eskimos,  that  he  had  never  had 
such  spiritual  joy  as  in  Cumberland  Sound.  A  no  less  valuable 
work  for  these  people  has  been  accomplished  along  the  western 
shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  by  other  missionaries  of  the  Society, 
notably  by  Archdeacon  Lofthouse,  whose  journeys  were  as  ex- 
tensive as  Mr.  Peck's  without  his  preparatory  training  before 
the  mast.  On  distant  coasts  and  islands  he  has  had  the  pleasure 
of  finding  Eskimos  who  had  learned  the  Gospel  at  his  northern 
station  of  Churchill. 

Passing  to  the  remote  northwestern  portion  of  the  Dominion, 
one  finds  the  scenes  of  the  zealous  and  heroic  labors  of  the 
veteran  Bishop  Bompas  and  the  less  well  known  Eskimo  mis- 
sionaries of  the  C.  M.  S.,  Archdeacon  McDonald,  and  the  Rev. 
I.  O.  Stringer  of  the  Canadian  Church  Missionary  Associa- 
tion. The  latter  and  his  wife  are  teaching  school,  and  he  dis- 
penses medicine  and  itinerates  over  ground  never  before  trav- 
ersed by  whites.  Beginning  with  a  blacksmith's  shop  as  a 
church,  they  have  reached  the  luxurious  stage  of  a  sod  house 
and  frame  building. 

4.  The  Alaskan  Eskimos.  —  A  peculiarity  of  the  work  in 
this  territory  is  the  close  relation  between  the  United  States 
Government  and  the  missionaries.  This  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  most  influential  man  in  the  territory,  Rev.  Sheldon 
Jackson,  D.D.,  is  at  once  the  Government's  General  Agent  of 
Education  in  Alaska,  and  is  also  deeply  interested  in  missions 
from  his  earlier  experience  in  that  work. 

The  reindeer  stations  which  owe  their  existence  to  the  care 
of  Dr.  Jackson  serve  the  Eskimos  as  a  training  school  in  in- 
dustry, while  they  promise  to  provide  for  one  of  the  greatest 
physical  needs  of  the  territory,  a  new  supply  of  food  of  greater 
hygienic  value  than  the  rapidly  disappearing  fat  of  those 
regions.  Moreover,  the  reindeer  have  already  served  an  ad- 
mirable purpose  as  mail  carriers  and  as  transport  animals  in  a 
land  which,  since  the  advent  of  gold-seekers,  demands  better 


32  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

means  of  intercommunication.  The  Presbyterians,  Congrega- 
tionalists,  Episcopalians  and  the  EvangeHcal  Mission  Union, 
as  well  as  a  number  of  Eskimos  are  profiting  by  their  introduc- 
tion, and  each  of  the  reindeer  stations  is  an  object  lesson  in 
morality  and  industry.  Where  some  of  the  Eskimos  have  been 
in  the  States  there  is  a  noticeable  regard  for  cleanliness,  cloth- 
ing, language  and  good  behavior. 

Schools  are  much  emphasized  by  the  various  missions  in 
Alaska.  The  natives  are  not  as  well  able  to  do  good  work  as 
in  a  more  favorable  climate.  Thus  one  teacher  complains  that 
in  the  winter  a  sort  of  hibernation  makes  the  scholars  late  in 
reaching  schools ;  in  the  spring  the  children  are  wild  to  be  out 
of  doors ;  and  in  the  summer  the  intense  heat  makes  it  necessary 
to  close  school. 

Medical  missions  are  more  appreciated,  and  instances  are 
known  in  which  patients  have  come  for  relief  a  distance  of 
more  than  300  miles.  The  prevalence  of  itch  makes  these 
easily  cured  cases  a  leverage  of  great  value.  One  of  the  Mora- 
vian nurses  has  gained  a  great  reputation  for  herself  by  hasten- 
ing to  the  sick  in  a  frail  skin  kayak  while  the  river  was  full  of 
ice  that  might  have  crushed  it  as  easily  as  an  egg-shell.  At 
the  point  of  mainland  farthest  west  in  America,  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales,  the  Congregationalists  have  been  enterprising  enough 
to  print  the  "  Eskimo  Bulletin,"  one  of  the  native  boys  being 
its  compositor  and  artist.  At  the  same  station  the  natives  have 
built  and  found  very  useful  a  structure  called  "  Thornton 
House,"  in  memory  of  the  missionary  who  was  cruelly  mur- 
dered by  Eskimos  some  years  since.  It  is  used  by  them  as  a 
workshop,  clubroom  and  for  other  purposes.  Dr.  Marsh  and 
his  wife  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  occupy  the  most  northerly 
mission  station  in  the  world  except  Upernivik  in  Greenland. 
Here  the  missionary  appears  in  the  new  role  of  ministering  to 
icebound  whalers  and  caring  for  the  reindeer  relief  expedition. 
The  prayer  meetings  held  in  all  the  stations  are  such  that  Dr. 
Jackson  has  said,  "  I  have  been  in  all  sections  of  the  United 
States  except  Florida,  but  I  have  never  seen  such  living  prayer 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF  AMERICA  33 

meetings  as  they  have  among  those  native  Christians  in 
Alaska." 

The  missionaries  laboring  here  are  troubled  considerably  by 
dampness  and  cold,  but  soon  learn  to  accommodate  their  cloth- 
ing to  these  conditions.  As  they  become  acquainted  with  the 
people,  they  find  them  industrious,  docile,  peaceable,  and  will- 
ing to  assume  support  of  their  own  school  and  religious  work 
so  far  as  the  Government  does  not  furnish  them  with  educa- 
tion. Like  their  Greenland  neighbors,  they  are  nomadic,  which 
causes  some  difficulty.  The  obstacles  in  the  way  of  developing 
Christian  character  among  the  people  could  be  largely  over- 
come on  the  one  hand  by  securing,  regular  employment  for 
these  people,  and  on  the  other  by  acceptance  of  the  Gospel,  as 
is  shown  in  the  case  of  many  converts.  The  shaman  or  medi- 
cine man  is  a  great  factor  to  draw  them  back  into  the  old  life, 
as  well  as  their  persistent  belief  in  evil  spirits  supposed  to  be 
subject  to  him.  As  the  Government  has  emphasized  the  work 
for  children,  so  the  missionary  finds  that  in  them  and  in  the 
men  are  the  most  hopeful  element  of  society. 

If  the  reader  labors  under  the  impression  that  mission  work 
is  not  needed  among  the  Alaskan  Eskimos,  he  should  read  an 
address  delivered  by  Dr.  Jackson  at  Lake  Mohonk,  in  1900,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  says :  "  The  Eskimos  are  heathen  with 
all  the  cruelties  that  attend  heathenism  in  the  South  Sea  Islands 
or  elsewhere ;  and  these  are  living  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes ! 
Two  years  ago  a  Swedish  missionary,  learning  that  I  was  going 
to  Washington,  wanted  me  to  plead  with  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  to  see  if  some  force  could  not  be  exerted  in  his  parish 
to  prevent  parents  from  destroying  their  new-born  babes,  in- 
fanticide being  so  prevalent  that  he  felt  it  was  necessary  for 
the  Government  to  interpose  with  its  strong  arm.  Last  winter 
on  St.  Lawrence  Island,  a  missionary,  who  had  just  gone  there 
and  who  had  not  been  there  long  enough  to  exert  much  in- 
fluence, was  invited  to  a  native  house  to  witness  the  destruction 
of  the  grandmother.  He  went,  hoping  that  he  could  prevent 
the  killing,  but  this  he  was  unable  to  accomplish.    This  woman 


34  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

was  one  of  seven  in  that  small  village  killed  by  their  families 
during  that  winter.  The  old  lady  was  dressed  in  her  best  as  if 
to  celebrate  her  birthday.  The  children  and  grandchildren  as- 
sembled, also  dressed  in  their  best,  and  when  all  the  circle  were 
present,  the  old  lady  took  her  seat  in  the  center  of  the  floor, 
adjusted  the  cord  to  her  own  neck,  and  her  son,  placing  a  stick 
between  the  cord  and  her  neck,  strangled  her.  This  sort  of 
thing  is  going  on  everywhere  outside  of  the  places  where 
Christian  churches  are  established.  Polygamy  prevails  every- 
where outside  of  Christian  communities.  Witchcraft  prevails. 
If  I  could  give  you  the  eye  of  omniscience,  I  could  show  you 
some  mother  ordering  her  newly-born  babe  to  be  thrown  out 
of  the  hut  to  be  frozen  to  death  or  torn  in  pieces  by  the  dogs. 
You  might  see  repeated  the  scene  that  occurred  in  one  of  the 
villages,  where  a  man  was  about  moving  his  home  from  one 
village  to  another.  The  family  consisted  of  his  wife  and  grown 
son  and  an  invalid  daughter.  He  loaded  the  sleigh,  hitched  up 
the  dogs,  and  not  being  willing  to  trouble  with  the  invalid 
daughter,  drove  his  knife  to  her  heart,  and  then  they  started  on. 
You  might  see  men,  women  and  children  tortured  to  death  as 
witches.  It  occurred  last  year,  and  will  occur  every  year  until 
the  Christian  churches  wake  up  and  determine,  God  helping 
them,  that  such  influence  shall  be  poured  in  there  as  to  make 
these  things  impossible." 

5,  Some  Results  of  Eskimo  Missions.  —  In  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned.  Dr.  Thompson's  observations  are  worth 
quoting :  "  It  is  of  comparatively  small  moment  that  the  original 
Eskimo  huts  with  windows  of  ice-slabs  or  seal-bladder  have 
given  place  to  houses  with  glass  windows,  an  iron  stove  in  the 
middle,  and  blankets  instead  of  reindeer-skins  for  the  bed; 
that  the  people  have  developed  a  creditable  taste  for  music, 
learning  tunes  readily,  many  of  the  women  and  children  pos- 
sessing sweet  voices ;  that  the  Eskimos  succeed  as  draughts- 
men, while  our  Indians  draw  like  children  and  Polynesians  do 
not  draw  at  all.  Moral  elevation  is  the  main  thing.  The  Week 
of  Prayer  is  now  observed  at  all  the  stations.    Schools  kept  by 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  35 

the  missionaries  are  maintained  at  each  station  and  all  that 
could  be  reasonably  expected  has  been  accomplished."  If  we 
turn  from  Labrador,  about  which  Dr.  Thompson  is  writing,  to 
Alaska,  and  compare  present  conditions  with  those  existing  be- 
fore the  advent  of  missionaries,  we  note  that  the  old  communal 
life  with  its  evils  —  and,  it  must  be  admitted,  certain  material 
advantages  also  —  has  given  place  in  multitudes  of  cases  to 
individual  homes  of  some  slight  degree  of  comfort.  Legal 
marriage  is  insisted  upon ;  children  are  cared  for  as  never  be- 
fore ;  and  it  is  reported  that  parents  have  learned  to  take  pride 
even  in  their  daughters. 

IL  Missions  among  the  Indians.  —  i.  In  Alaska.  —  The 
Indian  field  includes  the  interior  regions  of  northern  Alaska, 
especially  along  the  Yukon,  and  the  coast  south  of  Mt.  St. 
Elias.  The  societies  engaged  in  Indian  work  are  the  Pres- 
byterian, Episcopal,  and  the  Swedish  Evangelical  Mission 
Covenant. 

Schools  are  a  main  reliance.  Everywhere  successful,  those 
which  give  special  attention  to  practical  training  are  of  great- 
est value.  The  most  extensive  of  these  is  the  Sitka  Training 
and  Industrial  School  of  the  Presbyterians,  established  in  1880. 
The  avowed  object  of  the  institution  is  to  train  Indian  youth 
to  "  meet  the  changed  conditions  of  life  made  necessary  by  the 
influx  of  white  people,  the  taking  up  of  fishing  streams,  the 
opening  of  mines,  etc."  This  calls  for  a  more  liberal  and 
broader  education  along  intellectual  and  industrial  lines  than 
is  secured  in  ordinary  schools  of  the  territory.  "  A  common 
English  education  is  given.  The  girls  are  trained  in  the  do- 
mestic industries  so  that  they  are  fitted  to  become  intelligent 
housewives.  The  boys  have  a  training  in  trades,  such  as  boat- 
building and  carpentry.  They  also  make  all  the  shoes  worn 
by  the  entire  school.  One  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of  the 
work  is  that  of  settling  the  graduates  who  unite  in  Christian 
marriage  in  the  model  village  which  is  on  the  mission  grounds. 
The  terms  are  so  liberal  and  the  arrangement  so  satisfactory 
that  these  young  people  are  anxious  to  avail  themselves  of 


36  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

the  Opportunity  to  secure  a  home  for  themselves."  The  in- 
fluence of  young  women  who  give  their  lives  to  this  form  of 
service  is  most  elevating  and  important.  In  some  of  the  coast 
stations  liquor  is  clandestinely  secured,  and  since  women  as 
well  as  men  indulge,  their  children  flee  to  the  mission  house 
as  a  haven  of  refuge  from  the  home  pandemonium.  When 
in  addition  to  education,  the  school  makes  provision  for  tak- 
ing those  girls  who  are  about  to  be  sold  to  a  life  of  shame, 
their  value  is  still  more  apparent. 

Itinerating  in  a  land  where  "  men  are  few  and  miles  are 
many,"  is  a  difficult,  but  important  work.  Little  groups  of 
Christians,  isolated  from  Christian  fellowship,  and  surrounded 
by  superstitious  opponents  of  their  new  faith,  appreciate  the 
visits  of  their  white  friends.  Medical  work  is  likewise  a 
potent  agency  in  winning  friends  and  alleviating  suffering. 
The  hospitals  of  the  Episcopal  Board  at  Circle  City  and 
Skagway,  though  only  partially  devoted  to  Indian  patients, 
and  the  Sitka  hospital  of  the  Presbyterians,  are  the  means  of 
reaching  most  effectively  very  many.  The  ustial  forms  of 
station  work,  however,  have  done  the  most  for  the  Alaska 
Indians.  The  transformations  wrought  by  such  means  are  well 
described  in  an  address  made  by  Toy-a-att,  a  Christian  chief 
at  Fort  Wrangell :  "  When  I  was  young,  I  was  a  great 
fighter;  now  I  have  learned  from  Christianity  to  fight  no 
more.  Christianity  has  changed  us.  Formerly  we  thought 
the  crow  made  us  and  made  these  mountains  and  the  water 
and  everything;  now  we  know  God  made  it.  We  not  like 
as  we  used  to  do  —  fight,  shoot,  wound,  trouble  all  the  time. 
Now  peace  all  the  time.  See  my  house  —  no  ball  or  shot 
go  through  it.  All  God's  work  now.  Before  the  devil  say 
to  quarrel  and  fight  and  do  bad.  I  have  a  Saviour.  He  died 
on  the  cross  to  save  me.  I  am  now  old.  When  I  die,  I  know 
where  I  go :  I  am  in  a  bay  where  no  wind ;  no  wind  now  to 
upset  my  canoe  and  trouble  me.  The  Lord  is  my  light  and 
my  peace." 

Perhaps  the  most  unique  work  for  the  Indians  is  that  of 


THE   ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  37 

William  Duncan  at  the  Annette  Islands.  The  original  Metla- 
kahtla  which  this  remarkable  man  founded  was  under  the 
care  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  British  Columbia. 
Owing  to  unwillingness  to  permit  his  Indians  to  partake  of 
the  Sacraments,  and  misunderstandings  that  were  mutual,  the 
work  there  was  given  up  and  a  new  settlement  was  started 
on  Alaskan  soil.  What  he  has  accomplished  in  civilizing  the 
Indian  is  well  summarized  in  a  statement  that  Mr.  Duncan 
makes  concerning  a  critic  who  returned  to  the  new  settlement 
when  it  was  ten  years  old:  "We  had  about  three  miles  of 
good  sidewalks,  eight  feet  broad,  on  which  we  could  parade; 
1 20  good  houses,  occupied  by  the  natives,  and  each  built  on 
a  corner  lot.  Back  of  the  little  town  our  beautiful  church, 
with  capacity  for  seating  800  people,  also  a  large  school- 
building,  with  its  twelve  gables,  and  a  town  hall,  with  separate 
apartments  for  the  town  council,  Sunday-school  teachers,  mu- 
sicians and  library  and  reading-room.  Near  the  beach  a  guest- 
house for  strangers,  and  mission  premises  to  accommodate  two 
families  and  twenty  boarders  under  training,  all  which  at- 
tracted him.  The  industrial  plant  next  invited  his  attention. 
It  consisted  of  a  salmon  cannery,  employing  in  the  salmon 
season  upward  of  200  natives,  and  two  steamers,  which  are 
run  and  engineered  by  natives ;  also,  a  sawmill  of  fifty  horse- 
power, managed  entirely  by  natives,  and  driven  by  water-power 
conveyed  in  iron  pipes  from  a  lake  two  and  a  half  miles  away, 
and  800  feet  high.  In  addition  to  these  he  could  see  several 
general  stores  and  workshops  for  boat-building,  etc.,  all  owned 
and  carried  on  by  natives.  The  giant  forest  of  ten  years 
before  had  disappeared,  and  the  ground  was  producing  veg- 
etables and  small  fruits.  On  this  gentleman's  return  to  the 
steamer  he  seemed  humbled,  and  frankly  confessed  his  sur- 
prise at  the  changes,  for  he  saw  that  we  had  raised  a  home 
in  ten  years  far  superior,  in  every  way,  to  the  one  we  left  in 
British  Columbia,  which  had  taken  us  twenty-five  years  to 
build.  Whether  or  not  he  ascribed  our  progress  to  the  right 
cause  I  cannot  tell.     We  know,  however,  that  the  Gospel  of 


38  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Christ  accepted  has  done  it  all,  and  to  God  be  all  the  praise 
and  glory." 

The  last  sentence  quoted  is  the  secret  of  Mr.  Duncan's  suc- 
cess. In  it  the  Church  is  a  central  object,  and  since  remov- 
ing from  British  Columbia  it  goes  by  no  denominational  name, 
calling  itself  simply  the  Christian  Church  of  Metlakahtla. 
The  natives  are  taught  that  while  they  owe  no  exclusive  alle- 
giance to  any  one  denomination,  they  are  to  be  in  union  and 
fellowship  with  all  evangelical  Christians.  The  Mission  is 
under  no  Board,  the  Indians  themselves  by  their  industry 
earning  enough  to  supply  ample  means  for  church,  school, 
medical  and  other  mission  expenses.  The  church  building  cost- 
ing over  $10,000  was  paid  for,  with  the  exception  of  $3,000, 
by  the  Indians  themselves.  The  foundation  upon  which  Mr. 
Duncan  originally  started  a  Christian  village  was  the  agree- 
ment by  the  Indians  to  live  up  to  the  following  fifteen  regu- 
lations :  "  To  give  up  their  Indian  devilry ;  to  cease  calling 
in  conjurers  when  sick;  to  cease  gambling;  to  cease  giving 
away  their  property  for  display ;  to  cease  painting  their  faces ; 
to  cease  drinking  intoxicating  drink ;  to  rest  on  the  Sabbath ; 
to  attend  religious  instruction ;  to  send  their  children  to  school ; 
to  be  cleanly;  to  be  industrious  ;  to  be  peaceful ;  to  be  liberal 
and  honest  in  trade ;  to  built  neat  houses ;  to  pay  the  village 
tax."  So  interested  were  these  people  in  the  new  order  of 
things  that,  although  Indians  usually  go  to  bed  with  the  sun, 
they  turned  night  into  day  in  order  that  they  might  be  "  fixed 
in  God's  ways  "  as  they  said.  As  late  as  midnight  or  one 
o'clock,  Indians  came  in  to  receive  instruction,  and  revival 
scenes  of  remarkable  power  have  marked  the  history  of  the 
work  at  that  time  and  frequently  since. 

2.  Indian  Missions  in  the  Dominion.  —  According  to  the 
1899  Report  on  Indian  Affairs,  of  the  98,981  Indians  in  the 
country  only  15,147  were  still  pagan.  Though  39,794  were 
Catholics,  the  earnest  work  of  Protestant  missionaries  has 
won  great  victories  in  the  frozen  land  and  along  the  southern 
border.     The  societies  laboring  in  this  field  are  the  Colonial 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  39 

and  Continental  Church  Society,  the  Church  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  the  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada,  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Canada,  the  Woman's  Baptist  Home  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest, 
Qu'Appelle  Dicoesan  Mission,  the  New  England  Company, 
the  Canadian  C.  M.  A.,  and  the  Moravians.  A  few  Indians 
are  reported  as  being  Seventh  Day  Adventists,  Plymouth 
Brethren  and  adherents  of  the  Salvation  Army.  Details  as 
to  the  work  of  these  societies  may  be  seen  in  Volume  11.  The 
denominational  membership  is  given  in  the  Report  as  follows : 
Anglicans,  16,362  Indians;  Methodist,  10,757;  Presbyterian, 
1,367;  Baptist,  922;  Congregationalist,  72;  other  Christian 
beliefs,  460. 

One  great  secret  of  the  success  achieved  by  the  Dominion 
Government  in  dealing  with  the  Indians  is  found  in  the  school 
system  through  which  the  children  are  brought  into  close  touch 
with  the  civilization  and  Christian  influence  of  the  whites. 
Of  the  281  Indian  schools  reported  by  the  Government,  144 
were  conducted  by  Protestants,  while  of  the  two  grades  of 
schools  exerting  the  greatest  influence,  12  of  the  22  industrial 
schools,  and  18  of  the  34  boarding  schools  were  under  their 
care.  In  the  industrial  and  boarding  schools  of  all  grades, 
unusual  attention  is  paid  to  moral  and  religious  instruction, 
so  that  these  Indian  children  and  youth  receive  far  greater 
care  than  do  pupils  in  such  schools  in  the  States,  and  some 
of  them  surpass  in  this  respect  the  record  of  Wales  and  Scot- 
land. A  majority  of  schools  of  the  two  higher  grades  em- 
phasize as  helpfully  as  the  Sitka  Industrial  Institute  of  Alaska 
practical  training  in  trades,  farming  and  housework,  and  at 
the  same  time  impart  a  good  amount  of  instruction  in  the 
usual  school  studies.  Boarding  schools  meet  fewest  objec- 
tions, as  day-school  work  is  sadly  interfered  with  because  of 
migratory  habits.  The  school  being  on  the  reservation,  the 
parents  have  an  opportunity  to  see  their  children  occasionally. 

The  isolation  felt  by  Indian  workers  in  remote  regions  is 


40  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

well  pictured  in  a  letter  from  a  Mackenzie  river  missionary 
of  the  C.  M.  S. :  "  We  reside  not  far  from  the  arctic  circle 
amid  wild  mountainous  scenery.  Either  the  wild  fury  of 
storms  rages,  or  dead  calm  with  intense  cold  prevails,  inter- 
changed with  bright  sun  and  cheery  ice  and  snow  landscape 
for  eight  months  of  the  year.  Ice-blocked  and  snow-bound, 
dense  forest  covers  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  and 
beyond  a  trackless  desert  of  beautiful,  perfectly  dry  snow. 
Upward  of  1,500  miles  beyond  the  outer  limit  of  Canadian 
frontier  border  of  civilization,  and  our  nearest  missionary 
brother  fifteen  days'  journey.  Cut  off  from  white  people, 
shut  up  among  red  Indian  savages ;  oh,  what  vast  solitudes ! 
what  extreme  loneliness !  Rough  life,  hard  fare  and  our  fam- 
ily in  England  call  forth  powers  of  endurance,  good  qualities 
of  heart  and  head ;  also  much  physical  and  spiritual  strength 
are  required."  Notwithstanding  such  trials,  as  a  result  of 
this  man's  work  and  his  wife's,  constant  recruits  were  won 
from  the  Tukudh  tribes.  It  was  from  among  them  that  the 
first  Dominion  native  came  who  was  ordained  within  the 
arctic  circle,  John  Not-afraid-of-mosquitoes. 

The  work  done  by  the  evangelistic  missionary  has  been  de- 
scribed with  great  vividness  in  the  books  of  Egerton  Young 
of  the  Methodist  Church.  Traveling  from  place  to  place  in 
canoes  or  by  dog  train,  the  life  is  full  of  interest.  The  inven- 
tion by  James  Evans  of  a  syllabary  for  use  among  Indians 
makes  learning  to  read  a  comparatively  easy  matter,  and  the 
missionary  with  a  burnt  stick  can  use  a  convenient  rock  for 
his  book.  At  present,  however,  this  system  is  less  used  than 
formerly.  The  interest  that  they  take  in  the  Word  of  God, 
the  delight  in  camp  meetings,  one  of  which  is  attended  by 
more  than  a  thousand  Indians,  and  the  fidelity  of  many  of 
them  to  the  truth  when  they  must  suffer  for  their  faith,  make 
one  ready  to  assent  to  the  assertion  of  Professor  Warneck  that 
"  the  redskins  are  quite  capable  of  civilization  when  they  are 
fairly  treated,  and  are  more  accessible  to  Christianity  than  any 
other  people." 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  4I 

Yet  problems  abound.  The  two  most  serious  ones  are  the 
proselyting  efforts  of  Romanists,  and  the  ilHcit  sale  of  liquor. 
They  not  infrequently  trespass  upon  reservations  where  the 
Government  authorizes  Protestants  to  labor.  They  have  been 
known  to  offer  money  to  allow  the  priests  to  rebaptize 
children,  or  have  prejudiced  the  people  against  Protestantism 
by  distributing  pictures  of  Luther  and  Mohammed  going  down 
to  hell  together.  The  sale  of  liquor  cannot  well  be  stopped, 
as  the  Indians  desiring  it  will  never  betray  the  illegal  dealer. 

3.  Indian  Missions  in  the  United  States.  —  Here,  as  in  the 
Dominion,  Government  effort  and  missionary  activity  coop- 
erate in  the  work  of  uplifting  the  Indian.  As  a  result,  in 
1899  of  the  187,319  Indians,  exclusive  of  the  Five  Civilized 
Tribes,  31,655  were  communicants  of  Catholic  or  Protestant 
churches.  These  Christians  worshipped  in  348  church  build- 
ings, and  were  under  the  care  of  266  male  and  141  female 
missionaries,  not  counting  those  who  were  exclusively  teachers. 
Twenty-three  per  cent  of  these  Indians  could  read ;  twenty- 
eight  per  cent  used  English  well  enough  for  ordinary  purposes. 
They  lived  in  25,236  dwelling-houses;  and  sixty-eight  out  of 
every  hundred  had  exchanged  either  w^holly  or  in  part  their 
savage  costume  for  civilized  dress.  Catholic  and  Protestant 
religious  societies  and  individuals  had  contributed  during  that 
year  $119,407  for  religious  work  and  kindred  purposes,  and 
$261,515  for  Indian  education. 

The  only  criticism  that  seems  to  have  any  weight  with 
officials  is  that  missionaries  by  their  advice  and  influence 
tend  to  foster  tribal  life  instead  of  isolating  Indians  from  their 
fellows  and  inducing  them  to  enter  the  general  life  of  a  cos- 
mopolitan community. 

The  following  list  shows  the  states  or  territories,  churches 
or  societies,  and  tribes  —  as  they  are  known  to  the  Government 
—  associated  with  Protestant  missionary  effort.  Arizona: 
Christian  Reformed,  Connecticut  Woman's  Indian  Associa- 
tion, Gospel  Union,  Methodist,  Presbyterian;  Moqui,  Navajo, 
Pima.      California:    Methodist,   Moravian;    Mission,   Round 


42  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Valley.  Colorado:  Presbyterian;  Southern  Ute.  Florida: 
Protestant  Episcopal;  Seminole.  Idaho:  Connecticut  Woman's 
Indian  Association,  Methodist,  Presbyterian;  Nez  Perce. 
Indian  Territory:  Baptist,  Friends,  Methodist,  Presbyterian, 
Protestant  Episcopal;  Choctaw,  Quapaw.  Iowa:  Presbyte- 
rian; Sac,  Fox.  Kansas:  Moravian;  Chippewa.  Minnesota: 
Protestant  Episcopal ;  Chippewa,  Medawakanton  Sioux.  Mon- 
tana: Presbyterian ;  Fort  Peck  Sioux.  Nebraska:  Congre- 
gational, Presbyterian,  Protestant  Episcopal ;  Omaha,  Santee 
Sioux,  Winnebago.  New  Mexico-:  Methodist,  Presbyterian, 
Reformed  Church  of  America;  Apache,  Zuni  Pueblo.  New 
York  Indians:  Baptist,  Friends,  Methodist,  Presbyterian, 
Protestant  Episcopal.  North  Dakota:  Congregational,  Pres- 
byterian, Protestant  Episcopal ;  Fort  Berthold  Indians,  Devil's 
Lake  and  Standing  Rock  Sioux.  Oklahoma:  Baptist,  Friends, 
Methodist,  Presbyterian,  Reformed  Church  of  America,  Re- 
formed Protestant,  Mennonite ;  Fox,  Iowa,  Kiowa,  Osage,  Sac, 
Shawnee,  Wichita.  Oregon:  Methodist,  Presbyterian ;  Siletz, 
Warm  Springs.  South  Dakota:  Congregational,  Presbyter- 
ian, Protestant  Episcopal ;  Cheyenne  River,  Crow  Creek, 
Lower  Brule,  Pine  Ridge,  Rosebud,  Sisseton  and  Yankton 
Sioux.  Utah:  Protestant  Episcopal;  Ute.  Washington: 
Congregational ;  Skokomish.  Wisconsin:  Methodist ;  Chip- 
pewa. The  Woman's  National  Indian  Association  is  auxiliary 
to  a  number  of  the  above  churches. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  mission  schools  in  the  States 
are  less  helpful  in  a  practical  way  than  those  of  the  Dominion, 
the  Honorable  W.  A.  Jones,  Indian  Commissioner,  says  of 
these  schools  in  his  last  official  report :  "  The  labors  which 
they  do  in  an  educational  way  are  of  inestimable  value  for 
civilizing  these  people,  and  while  a  heavy  burden  must  rest, 
as  it  should,  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  Government,  yet  these 
little  institutions  of  learning  with  their  faithful  Christian  work- 
ers are  important  adjuncts."  In  1899  more  than  eighty-two 
per  cent,  of  the  Indians  in  mission  boarding-schools  were  found 
in  those  conducted  by  Protestants.    That  these  efforts  should 


THE  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA  43 

be  maintained  is  evident  from  the  statement  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  Schools  in  Indian  Territory.  He  shows  that  the 
Five  CiviHzed  Tribes  of  that  territory  were  benefited  very 
largely  while  schools  were  carried  on  under  the  care  of  mis- 
sionary societies.  Later  when  these  tribes  made  educational 
appropriations,  and  took  matters  in  their  own  hands,  the 
schools  began  to  retrogade,  and  nepotism  was  the  order  of 
the  day.  Thus  one  Indian  chairman  of  a  school  board  placed 
in  office  his  sister,  two  sisters-in-law,  an  uncle,  a  niece,  a 
brother-in-law's  daughter,  and  six  cousins. 

As  for  the  evangelistic  work  of  mission  churches,  it  is  espec- 
ially important  for  the  very  reason  that  religion  is  less  taught 
in  government  schools  than  in  Dominion  Indian  schools.  It 
is  found  that  where  a  church  is  planted  near  a  government 
school,  the  pupils  or  students  attend  the  services,  and  a  re- 
ligious work  can  thus  be  accomplished  outside  the  school  build- 
ing which  is  most  necessary.  Moreover,  the  missionary's 
daily  contact  with  Indians  in  their  cabins  is  of  the  highest 
importance,  since  it  is  the  only  civilizing  agency  that  comes 
close  to  the  life  of  many.  Multitudes  feel  the  power  of 
Christianity  when  they  see  the  hand  of  Christian  love  stretched 
out  to  aid  those  whom  the  Indian  agent  or  squatter  may  despise 
or  treat  roughly. 

Object  lessons  are  very  helpful  in  all  Indian  work.  Thus 
the  labors  of  Miss  Sybil  Carter  as  she  lives  and  teaches  the 
Gospel,  while  at  the  same  time  lace-making  is  taught  the 
Indians,  are  proving  very  fruitful.  Other  strong  missionaries 
like  the  Riggses,  Miss  Collins,  and  a  multitude  of  equally 
successful  workers  impress  themselves  upon  the  Indians ;  and 
when  they  see  Moravians  engaging  in  agriculture,  and  mis- 
sionaries of  other  denominations  laboring  with  their  own 
hands,  the  dignity  of  such  work  is  greatly  enhanced  in  their 
view. 

The  organization  of  young  Indian  life  into  an  aggressive 
evangelistic  force  is  difficult,  but  very  important.  Thus  the 
introduction  of  young  people's  societies,  though  attended  with 


44  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

great  difficulties,  and  the  annual  conference  of  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  leaders  with  the  young  Indian  men,  are 
germinal  forces  that  will  grow  into  elements  of  great  power. 
An  Indian  Secretary  gives  his  entire  time  to  the  work,  and 
local  Associations  are  proving  very  useful. 

A  section  from  the  Report  of  the  Board  of  Indian  Commis- 
missioners  to  the  United  States  Government  in  1899  will  fit- 
tingly close  this  section.  "  We  wish  to  express  our  convic- 
tion that  there  has  never  been  a  time  when  the  influence  of 
Christian  missionaries  and  of  distinctively  Christian  schools 
among  the  Indians  was  farther  reaching  in  its  effects,  or  was 
more  needed,  than  at  the  present  time;  and  we  trust  that  the 
churches  and  missionary  societies,  who  in  past  years  co- 
operated with  the  Government  through  the  contract  system 
by  which  their  schools  were  in  part  supported,  will  continue 
and  increase  their  efforts  for  the  Christianization  and  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Indian.  At  the  meetings  of  this  Board  at  Lake 
Mohonk  and  in  Washington,  it  is  made  evident  by  all  reports 
which  come  to  us  from  workers  in  the  field  that  no  influence 
is  so  potent  in  uplifting  the  Indians  and  fitting  them  for  intel- 
ligent American  citizenship,  as  is  the  example  and  the  helpful 
teaching  of  Christian  men  and  women  who  make  their  homes 
among  the  Indians." 


II 

MEXICO 

PART   I.  —  GENERAL 

Passing  southward  through  the  United  States  we  reach 
Mexico,  the  Egypt  of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Shaped  Hke 
a  vast  cornucopia  opening  northward,  this  colossal  horn  of 
plenty  seems  ready  to  pour  forth  into  the  world  its  abundant 
tropical  products  and  the  wealth  of  its  mines. 

I.  Mexican  Scenery  and  Climate.  —  The  traveller  is  im- 
pressed variously  according  as  he  journeys  through  the  three 
widely  differing  climatic  zones,  known  since  the  Spanish  in- 
vasion as  the  tierras  calientes  (hot  or  littoral  lands),  tierras 
templadas  (temperate  lands),  and  tierras  frias  (cold  lands). 

1.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  tierras  calientes  is 
yy°  F.,  and  save  in  the  swampy  forests  or  in  those  sections 
where  irrigation  is  impossible,  its  general  fertility  variegates 
the  landscape  with  stretches  of  maize,  rice,  pineapples,  oranges 
and  extensive  banana  jungles.  Those  coast  lands  not  alluvial 
are  usually  occupied  with  low  scrubby  growths  of  cacti  and 
spinous  plants.  Naturally  this  division  is  least  healthful  for 
foreigners,  especially  where  yellow  fever  prevails  in  summer. 

2.  Rising  rapidly  from  this  lower  terrace  to  the  great  central 
plateau,  which  varies  in  height  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  one  finds  oneself  in  the  temperate  climate  of  the  tierras 
templadas,  where  the  mercury  ranges  from  62°  to  70°  the  year 
round.  This  has  been  called  the  Paradise  of  Mexico,  combin- 
ing as  it  does  a  climate  scarcely  surpassed  in  the  world  with 
most  magnificent  scenery  and  a  wealth  of  semi-tropical  vegeta- 

45 


46  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tion,  including,  however,  all  the  cereals,  fruits  and  vegetables 
of  Central  and  Southern  Europe. 

3.  The  tierras  frias,  or  cold  lands,  could  only  be  so  named 
by  dwellers  in  a  warm  climate  like  that  left  by  the  Spanish  in- 
vaders, as  the  mean  temperature  of  these  higher  regions  — 
varying  from  a  mile  above  the  sea-level  to  snow-capped  sum- 
mits, ten  of  which  are  more  than  12,000  feet  in  height,  and  two 
of  them  upward  of  17,000  —  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  60°  F. 
"  Most  of  the  grand  central  plateau  is  located  here.  Its  rain- 
fall is  about  five  times  less  than  in  the  temperate  lands,  and  it 
produces  all  the  products  of  the  cold  latitudes,  as  wheat,  oats, 
apples,  etc." 

4.  The  rains  in  most  sections  begin  in  June,  increase  in  July 
and  end  in  November;  though  in  districts  farther  inland  the 
rainy  season  is  shorter.  They  fall  somewhat  regularly  during 
this  time  from  one  to  three  hours  daily,  the  atmosphere  being 
clear  during  the  remainder  of  the  day.  As  there  is  practically 
no  winter,  the  rainy  and  dry  seasons  give  the  only  variety  to 
the  year,  since  the  trees  lose  their  leaves  one  by  one  and  hence 
are  always  covered  with  foliage. 

5.  So  far  as  its  missionary  occupation  is  concerned,  few 
missionary  countries  are  so  healthful.  At  high  altitudes,  how- 
ever, nervous  persons  are  likely  to  suffer,  and  on  the  coast 
fevers  are  prevalent.  As  for  general  attractiveness,  the  aver- 
age Mexican  missionary  will  endorse  the  somewhat  enthusi- 
astic words  of  Minister  Romero :  "  As  a  whole,  the  Mexican 
climate,  if  not  of  the  most  invigorating  nature,  is  certainly  one 
of  the  most  delightful  in  the  world.  The  zone  of  temperate 
lands  —  oceanic  slopes  —  enjoy  an  everlasting  spring,  being 
exposed  neither  to  severe  winter  nor  to  intolerable  summer 
heats.  In  every  glen  flows  a  rippling  stream.  Every  human 
abode  is  embowered  in  leafy  vegetation,  and  here  the  native 
plants  intermingle  with  those  of  Europe  and  Africa.  Each 
traveller  in  his  turn  describes  the  valley  in  which  he  has  re- 
mained longest  as  the  loveliest  in  the  world.  Nowhere  else  do 
the  snowy  crests  or  smoking  volcanic  cones  rise  in  more  im- 


MEXICO  47 

posing  grandeur  above  the  surrounding  sea  of  verdure,  all 
carpeted  with  the  brightest  flowers.  In  these  enchanting 
scenes  there  is  still  room  for  millions  and  millions  of  human 
beings.'' 

II.  Mineral  Wealth  of  Mexico.  —  This,  even  more  than 
the  vegetable  productions,  is  destined  to  make  the  republic  in- 
creasingly important.  In  this  particular  Mexico  stands  in  the 
foremost  rank  among  the  nations,  and  her  riches  are  practically 
inexhaustible.  While  most  of  the  metals  are  found,  iron,  silver 
and  gold  are  the  most  valuable.  Though  gold  first  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Spaniards,  the  immense  silver  deposits 
later  came  into  greater  prominence.  From  the  main  lode  of 
Guanajuato,  Humboldt  said,  in  1800,  that  one-fifth  of  the  silver 
then  current  in  the  world  had  been  obtained.  While  such  esti- 
mates are  apt  to  be  defective,  "  the  records  of  mints  and  other 
sources  show  an  output  from  1521  to  1891  of  $3,570,370,247  in 
silver  and  $276,970,173  in  gold,  but  these  are  probably  very  far 
below  the  true  totals.  Bancroft  calculates  that  the  entire 
mineral  product  of  Mexico  reaches  $67,000,000  "  a  year.  When 
the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  and  of  coal  is  overcome, 
other  mineral  deposits  will  also  be  most  profitable,  as  a  single 
hill,  the  celebrated  Cerro  del  Mercado,  is  estimated  to  contain 
300,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore  averaging  seventy  per  cent,  of 
metal. 

III.  Its  Inhabitants.  —  Mexico,  with  a  territory  as  large 
almost  as  that  of  Germany,  France,  Spain  and  Italy  combined 
—  more  than  a  fourth  the  size  of  the  United  States  —  had  a 
population  in  1895  of  12,491,573,  an  average  density  of  a  trifle 
more  than  sixteen  per  square  mile.  To-day  the  United  States 
has  a  population  of  only  25.7  per  square  mile. 

I.  Nineteen  per  cent,  of  these  are  of  pure,  or  nearly  pure, 
white  extraction.  Many  Spaniards  come  over  when  mere  lads, 
and  by  dint  of  diligence,  frugality  and  temperance,  they  be- 
come great  farmers ;  and,  if  they  realize  their  ambition  and 
marry  the  daughter  of  a  rich  land-owner,  they  end  their  life  as 
retired  millionaires.     The  Spaniard  of  Mexico  "  is  forceful  of 


48  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

word  and  phrase,  energetic  in  his  movements,  immensely  vital, 
tremendously  persistent  and  wonderfully  enduring." 

The  English,  who  formerly  held  much  of  the  drygoods  trade 
of  Mexico,  have  yielded  before  the  superior  economy  of  the 
Germans.  The  latter  succumb  before  the  Barcelonnettes  with 
their  still  closer  methods. 

Many  of  the  Americans  are  speculators  and  "  dreamers  of 
golden  dreams,"  who  "  live  for  the  eyes  of  other  people."  The 
better  classes  from  the  United  States  have  effected  many 
changes ;  but  they  find  it  is  less  difficult  to  introduce  improved 
means  of  transportation,  finer  hotels,  electric  lights,  etc.,  than 
to  overcome  the  noonday  siesta  and  the  incubus  of  feast-days, 
saints-days  and  holidays  with  the  push  and  enterprise  of  their 
northern  home.  Romero  says  of  these  men :  "  It  is  easier  for 
Americans  in  Mexico  to  fall  into  Mexican  ways  and  Mexican 
moral  views,  than  it  is  to  convert  the  Mexicans  to  the  American 
views  of  life." 

2.  The  Indian  race  contributes  thirty^eight  per  cent,  of  the 
population  or  4,746,000,  of  whom  1,908,707  are  of  pure  blood. 
Descendants  of  tribes  that  have  amazed  the  antiquarian  by  the 
evidences  of  their  early  and  remarkable  culture,  many  proofs 
of  which  survive  in  the'  extensive  ruins  of  the  country,  they 
retain  to-day  few  traits  of  their  illustrious  ancestors.  While 
changes  are  gradually  taking  place,  they  generally  "  lead  a  life 
of  their  own,  mingling  but  not  mixing  with  the  other  races. 
From  them  chiefly  are  drawn  the  peons  or  agricultural  laborers, 
who,  through  a  system  which  keeps  them  permanently  in  debt, 
to-day  are  scarcely  less  slaves  than  were  their  ancestors  under 
the  Spaniards.  The  Indian  is  a  poor  workman  and  unreliable, 
though  as  a  rule  tractable,  if  well  treated.  His  wants  are  few 
and  his  small  surplus  earnings  usually  find  their  way  in  a  few 
hours  into  the  pockets  of  the  priest,  the  pulque  sellers,  or  the 
proprietors  of  bull-ring,  cock-pit,  or  monte  table.  He  has  no 
idea  of  honesty,  however.  He  does  not  steal  on  a  large  scale, 
but  tools,  saddlery  and  crops  must  be  constantly  watched.  The 
Indians  who  are  not  employed  on  the  estates  usually  live  in 


MEXICO  49 

communities  resembling  the  old  village  communities  of  Eu- 
rope." This  class  of  Indians  "  betray  that  gloom  and  incurable 
sadness  which  seems  to  hang  over  nations  destined  to  perish." 
Some  of  the  prominent  men  of  modern  Mexico,  like  Juarez, 
President  and  statesman,  and  Morelos,  the  soldier,  were  pure- 
blooded  Indians.  Fortunately  there  is  no  prejudice  felt  toward 
this  race,  and  if  well  educated,  they  are  sought  in  marriage  by 
the  highest  Spanish  families.  Like  other  branches  of  their 
race,  however,  they  are  decreasing,  owing  to  insufficient  nour- 
ishment and  shelter,  lack  of  care  in  sickness,  small-pox,  faulty 
treatment  of  infants  and  premature  marriage. 

3.  The  mixed  white  and  Indian  race,  known  as  mestizos, 
make  up  the  largest  section  of  society,  some  forty-three  per 
cent,  in  all.  Their  white  blood  usually  gives  character  to  the 
mestizos,  and  many  of  them  are  very  intelligent  and  skillful. 
They  are  always  courteous  and  polite  —  even  to  an  enemy  — 
and  are  so  open-handed  that  the  proverb  says  of  the  mestizo, 
"  His  purse  burns."  "  The  lower  orders  among  them,  the  so- 
called  leperos,  are  hopelessly  idle  and  vicious." 

4.  Hopeful  Elements  in  the  Situation.  —  While  the  Mexicans 
as  a  whole  have  been  accused  of  lack  of  enterprise  and  of  in- 
dolence, this  reproach  is  passing  away  with  the  coming  of  new 
and  more  favorable  conditions  and  a  more  stable  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Realizing  the  necessity  of  a  majority  rule,  hot- 
blooded  partisanship  is  yielding  before  optimism  and  a  thor- 
ough belief  in  their  country  and  its  future.  This  new  national 
consciousness  is  also  beginning  to  assert  itself  in  the  over- 
throw of  lower  forms  of  sport,  such  as  the  bull-ring,  cock- 
fighting,  etc. 

Education,  though  still  in  a  backward  state,  is  becoming  a 
matter  of  prime  importance.  "  In  1898  the  number  of  schools 
supported  by  the  Federation  and  states  was  6,738,  and  by  the 
municipalities,  2,953;  the  number  of  teachers  in  both  was  15,- 
505 ;  there  were  702,685  enrolled  pupils  and  an  average  at- 
endance  of  470,557.  The  private  and  clerical  schools  num- 
bered 2,667  with  125,393  enrolled  pupils  and  an  average  at- 


50  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tendance  of  95,542.  Of  the  average  attendance,  347,884  were 
boys  and  218,215  were  girls.  There  is  also  one  military  and 
one  naval  college.  The  number  attending  the  higher  schools 
is  stated  at  21,000."  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mexico  was  formally  established  in  1553,  eighty- 
three  years  before  Harvard  College,  and  that  as  late  as  1824 
Humboldt  could  say  of  this  Athens  of  the  New  World :  "  No 
country  of  the  New  Continent,  not  excepting  those  of  the 
United  States,  presents  scientific  establishments  so  great  and 
so  solid  as  those  of  the  capital  of  Mexico." 

5.  Diseases  Affecting  the  Inhabitants.  —  On  the  shores  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  marsh  fever  and  phthisis  are  prevalent, 
and  yellow  fever  is  somewhat  common  up  to  the  altitude  of 
2,500  or  3,000  feet.  On  the  Pacific,  bilious  fevers  and  dysen- 
tery are  foes  to  the  natives,  while  on  the  highlands  the  skin 
is  often  covered  with  white,  red,  and  black  spots.  The  pla- 
teau people  are  often  affected  by  the  high  altitude  which  is 
apt  to  induce  anaemia  and  premature  decay.  Pneumonia,  cancer 
and  typhoid  fever  are  also  common  maladies  of  the  highlands. 

IV.  Two  Historical  Races.  —  In  addition  to  what  has 
been  said,  further  particulars  should  be  given  concerning  two 
of  the  early  races  of  Mexico,  whose  descendants  are  still 
numerous.  A  consideration  of  what  these  races  have  been 
in  the  past  will  furnish  a  basis  for  hope  of  their  development 
under  the  new  conditions  of  the  present  century. 

I.  The  names  Asteca  and  Mexica  are  supposed  to  refer  to 
the  same  group  of  races,  and  very  probably  Mexica  comes 
from  the  name  of  the  national  war-god.  In  any  case  Prof. 
Tylor's  statement  concerning  them  was  true  in  early  times : 
"  Based  on  conquest  as  the  Aztec  kingdom  was,  and  with  the 
craving  for  warlike  glory  fostered  by  the  most  bloodthirsty 
religion  the  world  ever  saw,  it  follows  that  the  nation  was 
above  all  other  pursuits  organized  as  a  fighting  community." 
If  in  war  they  were  fiends,  in  the  execution  of  justice 
they  seem  to  have  been  thoroughly  Draconian.  The  king 
when  passing  sentence  usually  sat  with  one  hand  on  an  orna- 


MEXICO  51 

merited  skull  and  with  a  golden  arrow  in  the  other.  To  steal 
a  tobacco  pouch  or  even  twenty  ears  of  corn  was  a  crime  pun- 
ished by  death.  When  for  so  slight  an  offense  the  death  pen- 
alty was  exacted,  there  were  naturally  ingenious  variations 
according  to  the  degree  of  wrong.  Thus  for  one  crime,  death 
might  be  inflicted  by  having  the  heart  cut  out  on  the  altar, 
while  for  another  the  criminal's  head  was  crushed  between 
two  stones,  etc.  The  bloodthirsty  character  of  their  religion 
is  referred  to  below,  and  is  one  of  the  most  debasing  elements 
in  their  life. 

Their  material  advancement  in  spite  of  such  barbarity  was 
most  marked.  Living  on  the  plateau,  they  were  the  great  archi- 
tects of  the  New  World.  The  extensive  palaces,  no  doubt  less 
magnificent  than  the  early  Spaniards  reported  them,  and  a 
species  of  picture-writing  almost  alphabetic,  are  indications 
of  their  advanced  condition,  as  were  their  system  of  govern- 
ment and  their  acquaintance  with  astronomy  as  exhibited  in 
their  complicated  calendar.  Agriculture  was  carried  on  with 
great  skill  and  the  utmost  industry,  while  other  trades  were 
actively  prosecuted. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  present  descendants  of  these  wonderful 
people  only  give  slight  evidence  of  their  former  civilization ; 
yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  a  large  portion  of  the  Indians 
in  the  state  of  Mexico  and  neighboring  states  are  the  descend- 
ants of  these  early  men,  and  have  in  them  innate  possibilities 
of  development. 

2.  According  to  some  writers,  even  more  marvelous  were 
the  early  dwellers  in  Yucatan,  whose  descendants  either  of 
pure  or  mixed  blood  constitute  perhaps  four-fifths  of  the  in- 
habitants. Their  name,  Maya,  suggests  the  achievement  which 
made  their  civilization  in  such  a  flat  and  dry  country  possible. 
It  signifies  "  land  without  water,"  and  this  not  so  much  because 
there  is  no  rain,  but  because  the  porous  upper  strata  permit  all 
moisture  to  filtrate  through,  thus  leaving  the  surface  arid.  In 
1888  when  Yucatan  altogether  had  seven  cities,  sixty-two 
"ruined   cities"  were  reported,   an  indication  of  the  injury 


52  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

brought  to  the  country  by  the  conquest  and  the  consequent  giv- 
ing up  of  irrigation  works.  Although  the  surface  is  dry,  it  is 
easy  to  obtain  water  by  sinking  a  well  for  a  few  feet.  In  addi- 
tion to  well-irrigation,  the  ancient  Mayas  spent  many  years  in 
constructing  reservoirs  for  unusually  dry  seasons.  One  of  these 
subterranean  cavities  is  450  feet  below  the  surface  and  the  pas- 
sage leading  to  it  is  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long.  The 
"  ruined  cities  "  just  alluded  to  are  remarkable  even  in  their 
present  state  of  decay,  the  remains  found  at  Uxmal  being  par- 
ticularly famous.  What  the  origin  of  this  culture  was  is  still 
a  matter  of  dispute  among  archaeologists. 

V.  Religion.  —  i.  Its  Early  Forms.  —  The  very  name  of 
Mexico  recalls  the  contrast  between  the  warrior  period  and 
those  ancient  days  when  the  mild  religion  of  its  inhabitants 
was  exempt  from  sanguinary  rites;  of  the  age  of  temple  and 
pyramid  builders  reminding  one  of  their  predecessors  of  Baby- 
lon and  Egypt.  Later  came  the  "  war-god  "  stage  when  the 
stain  of  sin  was  cleansed  by  bleeding  hearts  torn  from  human 
breasts  and  held  up  by  gory-handed  priests  toward  invisible 
spirits.  One  remembers  also  that  still  later  development  of 
Mexican  religion  when  "  every  temple  washed  its  foundations 
in  the  blood  of  captives,  mingled  with  offerings  of  the  precious 
metals,  of  pearls  and  the  seeds  of  all  useful  plants.  Some 
were  entered  through  a  door  in  the  form  of  a  throat,  in  which 
thousands  of  skulls  lined  the  jaws  of  the  monster,"  Nor  can 
one  forget  the  great  national  ceremonies  in  which  not  even 
a  royal  victim  could  suffice,  and  so  it  became  necessary  to 
first  deify  and  worship  the  youthful  victims  before  slaying 
and  eating  these  gods  incarnate.  It  is  said  that  during  the 
period  immediately  preceding  the  Spanish  conquest,  no  less 
than  20,000  human  victims,  including  infants,  were  annually 
immolated  for  propitiating  the  rain  gods. 

2.  Religion  of  the  Conquistador es.  —  The  greatest  of  these, 
Hernando  Cortes,  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  in  15 19,  and  from  the 
Conquest  Catholicism  has  been  Mexico's  ruling  religion.  The 
transition  was  not  so  marked  a  change  for  the  vanquished  as 


MEXICO  53 

might  be  supposed.  Though  the  pious  monk  held  that  "  long 
experience  has  shown  the  necessity  of  depriving  these  men  of 
freedom  and  giving  them  guides  and  protectors,"  and  though 
the  district,  now  known  as  the  state  of  Jalisco,  lost  all  but 
126,000  of  its  450,000  in  the  process,  they  found  it  "  easier  to 
bend  the  neck  to  the  yoke  of  the  demigods  armed  with  thunder, 
than  to  rulers  of  their  own  race."  Moreover,  the  natives  had  at 
last  secured  a  release  from  the  terrorism  of  the  old  religion. 
Little  was  said  by  the  Catholic  priests  of  the  redemption 
wrought  by  our  Saviour's  death ;  "  because  the  Spaniards, 
claiming  immortality  for  themselves,  were  reluctant  to  teach 
the  neophytes  that  their  God  could  die."  This  faith  increased 
in  power,  thanks  to  the  Inquisition,  and  the  Church  controlled 
education  and  absorbed  much  of  the  wealth  of  the  country 
until,  by  the  proclamation  of  religious  liberty  in  1857,  it  ceased 
to  be  the  state  religion. 

3.  Religions  Conditions  To-day.  —  At  present  Church  and 
State  are  absolutely  separated  and  perfect  freedom  of  worship 
is  theoretically  possible.  Monastic  orders  are  prohibited  and 
ecclesiastical  institutions  are  not  permitted  to  acquire  real  es- 
tate. "  No  religious  instruction  or  ceremony  is  allowed  in  the 
public  schools,  and  never  is  a  prayer  offered  as  part  of  the 
program  of  a  national  celebration."  There  are  at  present  thou- 
sands of  progressive  Catholics  who  are  awake  to  the  larger 
freedom  of  the  times.  Yet  a  great  proportion  of  the  Indian 
population  keep  to  their  old  idolatry,  having  merely  changed 
their  idols  for  images  of  Catholic  saints.  The  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian's chaplain.  Abbe  Dominic,  could  say  with  much  truth 
that  the  religion  of  the  country  was  a  baptized  heathenism,  a 
mixture  of  superstitions  unworthy  the  name  of  Catholic. 


PART   II.  —  MISSIONARY 

Protestantism    approaches    this    republic    and    all    Latin 
America  with  a  different  purpose  from  that  which  prompts  its 


54  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

adherents  to  go  to  non-Christian  fields.  Scattered  over  all 
the  Mexican  states  are  multitudes  who  for  decades  —  or  for 
centuries  through  their  ancestors  —  have  been  reaping  the 
benefits  of  Christianity.  Few  except  the  Indians  are  wholly 
ignorant  of  the  great  truths  of  our  religion;  in  fact,  of  the 
Mexicans  more  than  ninety-nine  per  cent,  were  Romanists  in 
1895.  It  is  because  of  failure  to  emphasize  what  Protestant- 
ism regards  as  essentials,  and  because  of  gross  ignorance  con- 
cerning commonplace  religious  teachings,  as  well  as  in  view 
of  the  divorce  between  religion  and  morality,  that  American 
and  English  Christians  have  stationed  their  representatives  in 
Latin  American  lands. 

I.  The  Force.  —  North  America  has  naturally  sent  to  the 
aid  of  her  sister  republic  by  far  the  largest  number  of  mission- 
aries and  under  the  following  societies :  of  Presbyterians,  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Boards,  the  Associate  Reformed 
(South),  and  the  Cumberland;  the  Methodist  Boards,  North 
and  South ;  the  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society, 
Independent  Baptists  of  the  South,  and  the  Southern  Baptist 
Convention;  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Board;  the  American 
Board  (Congregational)  ;  the  Christian  Woman's  Board  of 
Missions ;  the  Friends'  work ;  the  American  Bible  Society ;  the 
Seventh  Day  Adventists  and  their  medical  work ;  and  the  aux- 
iliary but,  important  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 
Great  Britain  is  represented  by  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  and 
Mexico  herself  is  furthering  the  cause  through  the  Junta  Mi- 
sionera  Mexicana.  Details  of  the  work  done  by  these  societies 
are  given  in  Volume  II. 

II.  The  General  Situation.  —  Mexico  is  like  nearly  all 
sections  of  Latin  America  in  the  general  problems  confront- 
ing missions ;  hence  much  that  is  stated  somewhat  fully  here 
will  be  understood  as  applicable  in  the  three  following  chap- 
ters. Rev.  H.  W,  Brown  discusses  them  at  length  in  Lecture  V. 
of  his  "  Latin  America."    We  briefly  summarize  his  discussion. 

I.  The  foremost  one  is  found  in  the  pagan  or  semi-pagan 
Indians  who  in  Mexico  especially  constitute  so  large  a  proper- 


MEXICO  55 

tion  of  the  population.  They  are  as  yet  scarcely  touched  and 
the  work  for  their  evangelization  is  as  difficult  as  that  in  most 
pagan  lands.  Catholicism  after  four  centuries  of  effort  and 
with  unusual  helps  of  an  external  character  has  largely  failed 
to  reach  them,  thus  standing  in  contrast  with  Catholic  priests 
in  the  Dominion. 

2.  The  second  factor  is  found  in  the  adherents  of  Romanism, 
who  form  so  influential  a  section  of  tlie  community.  They 
"  fall  naturally  into  two  groups,  between  which  there  are  nota- 
ble contrasts.  On  the  one  hand  are  the  mass  of  ignorant,  super- 
stitious worshippers  who  accept  what  they  are  told  and  do 
what  they  are  bidden  with  little  or  no  thought.  Over  against 
these  is  a  wealthy,  conservative  element,  strong  in  social  and 
political  influence.  They  do  not  intend  to  yield  without  a 
struggle.  Disestablishment  has  but  served  to  arouse  the  Church 
to  the  putting  forth  of  all  her  energies  to  make  good  what  was 
lost  in  the  struggle ;  and  for  this  reason  we  must  reckon  with  a 
revived  Romanism." 

3.  The  liberal  party  is  a  hardly  less  important  factor  in  the 
situation.  While  it  has  secured  religious  liberty  in  Mexico, 
the  party  can  not  do  further  work.  In  fact  most  of  the  leaders 
are  very  skeptical  in  their  views,  and  hence  the  way  is  open 
to  infidelity  or  marked  indifference. 

4.  What  is  demanded  from  the  last  and  numerically  weak- 
est as  well  as  the  most  suspected  factor  in  the  republic. 
Protestantism,  is  twofold  in  character.  On  the  one  hand  it 
must  elevate  moral  standards  both  of  belief  and  practice,  and 
on  the  other  it  must  build  up  self-supporting  and  self-propa- 
gating churches  of  the  Protestant  type. 

III.  Character  of  the  People  and  Prevailing  Evils.  — 
As  missionaries  face  this  situation,  they  are  confronted  with 
helps  and  hindrances  in  popular  character  and  morals. 

I.  Those  characteristics  most  helpful  to  the  work  are  vari- 
ously emphasized  by  different  missionaries,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  quotations.  Rev.  H.  W.  Brown,  M.A., 
writes :   "  The  present  Government  is  liberal  and  there  is  free- 


56  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

dom  of  worship.  The  foreign  influence,  especially  of  the  large 
American,  German,  English  and  French  colonies,  is  strong  in 
Mexico  City.  The  number  of  Americans  in  the  whole  repub- 
lic is  increasing  rapidly  and  is  a  liberalizing  influence.  Many 
hate  Romish  oppression  of  the  past."  Rev.  Dr.  Chastain  speaks 
of  the  heart-hunger  felt  by  many  of  the  lowest  classes  for 
divine  truth,  leading  them  to  eagerly  buy  Bibles  and  other 
religious  literature,  as  well  as  to  listen  to  the  spoken  Word. 
Others  mention  the  desire  for  education,  the  love  of  liberty, 
the  prevalent  knowledge  of  God  and  nominal  belief  in  Bible 
doctrines,  the  steadfastness  of  converts  under  persecution  and 
native  courtesy  and  hospitality,  as  being  very  helpful  in  their 
work. 

2.  But  over  against  these  characteristics  are  placed  other 
serious  obstacles.  Fanaticism  is  most  frequently  mentioned  as 
the  great  difficulty.  Sometimes  this  is  provoked  by  ignorant 
priests ;  in  other  districts  it  is  so  universally  present  that  it 
makes  work  practically  impossible.  Fear  of  consequences, 
either  as  it  affects  their  industrial  prospects  or  their  standing 
in  the  community,  is  a  potent  objection  in  the  way  of  many, 
especially  when  it  involves  contumely  and  sneers.  The  Chi- 
nese trait  of  conservatism  holds  back  most  of  the  Indians. 
Rev.  G.  B.  Winton  describes  the  case  of  many  as  "  a  sort  of 
constitutional  inertness  of  will,  coupled  with  mental  sluggish- 
ness. They  exhibit  also  many  calamitous  results  of  an  unmoral 
—  often  immoral  —  form  of  so-called  Christianity.  The 
divorce  in  their  thought  between  religion  and  morals  is  a  tre- 
mendous obstacle."  Two  prominent  missionaries  feel  the  dif- 
ficulty arising  from  previous  contact  with  the  United  States, 
whence  almost  all  of  the  workers  come.  The  war  of  1847  has 
not  been  forgotten  and  many  Mexicans  fear  a  "  pacific  con- 
quest "  of  their  republic  by  its  powerful  northern  neighbor. 
Specific  sins  that  must  be  driven  out  before  the  Gospel  can 
find  place  are  drunkenness,  gambling,  impurity.  Sabbath  dese- 
cration, and  a  variety  of  superstitions  which  thrive  in  the 
favoring  soil  of  Latin  America's  Romanism. 


MEXICO  57 

3.  How  are  these  difficulties  to  be  overcome?  The  mission- 
aries reply  that  schools,  proper  literature,  nearer  acquaintance 
with  the  suspected  Protestants,  the  healing  touch  of  medicine, 
emphasis  of  temperance,  Bible  teaching  and  biblical  object- 
lessons  in  missionary  lives,  the  strategic  use  of  all  means  to 
reach  the  young,  and  above  all  the  proclaiming  of  the  pure 
gospel,  will  do  more  than  all  else  to  remove  difficulties.  This 
is  the  answer  of  Rev.  W.  I.  Kelsey,  editor  of  "  El  Ramo  de 
Olivo  "  :  "  By  gathering  the  children  into  boarding  schools  and 
educating  them  under  Christian  influences ;  by  the  preaching 
of  the  gospel  and  all  other  means  of  grace.  The  object  of  all 
is  to  set  up  a  right  standard  before  them  by  word  and  deed, 
so  that  they  may  know  the  truth." 

IV.  Religion  and  Ethics  as  Related  to  Missions.  — 
I.  That  form  of  religion  which  most  dominates  Mexican  life 
is  Romanism  in  a  greatly  degraded  form.  What  Dr.  Abbott 
wrote  of  the  early  efforts  of  the  Church  as  it  came  in  contact 
with  the  Aztec,  Toltec  and  Maya  civilization,  is  said  by  mis- 
sionaries to  be  scarcely  less  true  to-day :  "  Christianity  instead 
of  fulfilling  its  mission  of  enlightening,  converting  and  sancti- 
fying the  natives,  was  itself  converted.  Paganism  was  bap- 
tized, Christianity  was  paganized."  Auricular  confession  is 
especially  harmful  in  the  way  of  early  corrupting  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  both  sexes  and  all  classes. 

2.  Stepping-stones  to  higher  things  are  found  in  the  widely 
prevalent  fact  that  the  Mexicans  are  a  distinctly  religious 
people.  Outwardly  and  often  at  heart  they  are  reverential, 
humble  and  manifest  a  devotional  spirit.  Faith  in  God  is  al- 
most universal ;  the  feeling  that  He  can  and  will  pardon  the 
truly  penitent  is  helpful ;  while  the  simple  words  of  Christ 
and  the  acceptance  of  the  Bible  as  the  Word  of  God  and  guide 
of  life  have  attractions  for  many.  Of  course  the  fundamental 
truths  of  Romanism  are  in  the  main  the  same  as  those  of 
Protestants,  and  hence  missionaries  share  in  the  apostolic  ad- 
vantage of  building  on  a  strong  foundation  already  laid. 

3.  Religious  views  most  difficult  to  combat  are  above  all 


58  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

those  connected  with  Mariolatry,  and  to  a  less  degree  the 
adoration  o£  saints.  Even  more  than  in  other  parts  of 
Latin  America  is  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  made  prominent, 
partly  because  the  republic  possesses  two  rival  Marys,  "  Our 
Lady  of  Guadalupe  "  and  the  Virgin  of  Remedies.  An  illus- 
tration of  the  lengths  to  which  this  worship  has  gone  may  be 
seen  in  this  translation  of  the  prayer  found  on  a  tablet  sus- 
pended before  the  Chapel  of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Puebla  —  ranking  second  to  the  Cathedral  in 
Mexico  City.  "  Most  holy  Virgin  of  Guadalupe,  glorious 
daughter  of  God  the  Father,  mother  of  God  the  Son,  and  wife 
of  God  the  Holy  Spirit,  my  Lady  consecrated  and  sanctified 
before  thou  was  created;  I  pray  thee,  my  patron  saint  and 
Lady,  that  if  to-day,  if  this  moment,  if  this  hour,  or  if  during 
the  remainder  of  my  life,  or  in  death,  any  sentence  should  be 
passed  against  me  or  against  anything  of  mine,  it  may  by  thy 
intercession  be  revoked,  and  by  the  hand  of  thy  Son  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  be  turned  aside.  Amen,  Jesus."  A  later  author- 
ization for  such  intercession  is  found  in  the  "  Chapter  of  Holy 
Mary  of  Guadalupe,"  published  in  1885 :  "  The  Holy  Spirit 
also  has  made  thee  the  dispenser  of  all  His  gifts  and  graces. 
All  the  three  divine  persons  concurred  to  crown  thee  at  thy 
glorious  ascension  to  the  heavens,  and  then  there  was  conferred 
upon  thee  absolute  power  over  all  created  in  heaven  and  on 
earth."  It  is  but  natural  with  such  stupendous  falsehoods  over- 
laying fundamental  truths  of  Romanism,  "  that  the  millions 
of  Mexicans  have  failed  to  find  their  Savior,  and  that  their 
services  have  degenerated  into  a  heathenish  spectacle." 

The  supposed  power  of  the  priesthood  is  scarcely  less  en- 
thralling than  Mariolatry.  Some  priests  are  unprincipled 
Spanish  adventurers,  but  with  the  .new  demands  made  by 
recent  progress  they  are  far  less  open  to  criticism  than  for- 
merly. A  formal  religion  and  salvation  to  be  secured  by  works 
through  association  with  the  Church  despite  immoral  living 
are  factors  which  missionaries  find  hard  to  eradicate  from  the 
minds  of  Mexicans.     Among  the  higher  classes  infidelity  and 


MEXICO  59 

spiritism  are  somewhat  widely  prevalent  and  must  be  met,  if 
they  are  to  be  won  for  evangelical  Christianity. 

V.  Christian  Strategics.  —  i.  As  to  the  point  of  least 
resistance,  the  old  rule  that  has  obtained  everywhere  among 
the  more  cultivated  races  except  Japan  holds  here  also,  as  the 
workers  are  almost  unanimous  in  their  verdict  that  the  class 
most  easily  reached  is  the  lower  stratum.  It  is  not  the  very  poor, 
however,  who  are  most  readily  and  wisely  won,  but  rather  the 
artisans  and  others  in  lowly  but  self-respecting  walks  of  life. 
And  here  the  rural  population  is  found  somewhat  more  ap- 
proachable than  artisans  in  cities.  The  Rev.  H.  P.  McCor- 
mick  suggests  the  following  explanation  of  the  greater  ease 
in  gaining  converts  from  the  poorer  classes :  "  The  priests 
give  larger  liberty  to  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  If  a  well- 
to-do  person  has  a  Bible,  it  will  almost  surely  be  burned  by 
the  priest ;  for  he  succeeds  in  getting  somebody  in  every  large 
family  to  confess  regularly.  The  rich  will  not  hear,  read,  or 
even  witness.  The  poor,  having  little  to  lose  socially,  dare  to 
hear  and  have  the  bravery  to  continue  under  instruction  until 
conversion."  A  few  missionaries  plead  for  a  wider  evan- 
gelization of  the  Indians,  and  in  view  of  their  numbers,  if  not 
their  influence,  the  appeal  is  a  strong  one.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  value  of  this  work,  the  case  of  Aztecs  in  Chiquatal  is  in 
point.  Walking  miles  over  the  mountains  they  besought  Mr. 
Haywood  of  the  Methodist  Board  North  to  establish  a  school, 
promising  to  cut  the  timber,  drag  it  down  the  steep  mountain 
and  across  streams  and  build  the  schoolhouse  as  well  as  a  bam- 
boo home  for  the  teacher.  One  man  over  fifty  years  of  age 
asked  if  he  might  receive  instruction  that  he,  too,  might  read 
the  Bible  and  hymn-book. 

2.  Those  methods  that  have  proved  most  permanently  use- 
ful are  evangelistic  and  educational  in  character,  though  liter- 
ature is  a  most  important  adjunct  in  both  these  forms  of  work. 
The  Rev.  H.  W.  Brown  thus  puts  the  case :  "  The  press  with 
Bible,  tracts  and  papers  has  opened  the  way  in  new  regions. 
Evangelistic  efforts  follow  this  up  and  sometimes  go  hand 


6o  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

in  hand.  Educational  work  is  equally  important,  at  least  to 
supply  evangelical  teachers,  preachers  and  colporteurs."  A 
peculiar  form  of  this  combined  work  comes  from  Orizaba 
where  a  native  Methodist  pastor  holds  a  night  school  two 
evenings  in  the  week  at  the  prison.  Eighty  prisoners  are  en- 
rolled, a  class  in  morals  has  been  started,  and  an  influence  per- 
vades the  entire  prison  life  that  bids  fair  to  make  it  a  reforma- 
tory of  morals.  The  authorities  are  delighted  and  permit  him 
to  hold  a  class  for  the  children  prisoners  —  one  of  whom,  a  boy 
of  eleven,  is  a  murderer. 

In  itinerating  from  town  to  town  the  missionary  is  con- 
fronted with  evidences  of  the  great  need  of  the  gospel.  Here 
is  a  sketch  from  the  pen  of  a  Presbyterian  missionary  writing 
from  San  Luis  Potosi :  "  We  are  surrounded  by  vast  multi- 
tudes of  people  of  all  classes  that  seem  to  be  utterly  beyond 
our  reach.  The  language  of  the  streets  that  constantly  as- 
saults our  ears  is  foul  beyond  description.  Drunkenness  is  a 
prevailing  vice,  and  it  is  a  common  event  of  daily  street  life 
to  see  two  policemen  dragging  a  man  or  a  woman  along  to 
jail,  where  some  of  them  remain  for  four  of  five  days  with- 
out food.  On  a  Sunday  afternoon  or  on  a  religious  feast  day, 
in  the  outlying  wards  of  the  town,  crowds  gather  where  there 
is  music  and  dancing.  The  revel  nearly  always  ends  in  drunken 
brawls  and  sometimes  bloodshed.  Conditions  are  no  better  in 
the  smaller  towns  and  villages." 

VI.  The  Denominations  and  Missions.  —  As  is  the  case 
in  most  mission  lands  the  supposed  evils  of  denominationalism 
exist  mainly  in  the  minds  of  critics  at  home.  A  representative 
Mexican  missionary  says :  "  As  yet  the  mass  of  our  converts 
do  not  distinguish  clearly  the  doctrinal  differences  of  Protest- 
ants (with  one  exception),  but  all  use  the  common  name 
*  evangelicals.'  " 

I.  Those  features  of  denominational  polity  which  most  at- 
tract the  majority  are  such  as  either  remind  them  of  the 
mother  Church  or  else  are  in  opposition  to  the  old  regime. 
Under  the  first  category  would  be  placed  the  remarkable  sue- 


MEXICO  6l 

cess  achieved  by  the  first  Protestant  body  to  become  fully  or- 
ganized at  the  Capital,  —  the  earlier  Mexican  work  of  Miss 
Rankin  and  of  the  American  Bible  Society  were  also  important 
—  known  first  as  the  "  Church  of  Jesus  "  and  later  bearing 
the  name  of  the  Mexican  Episcopal  Church,  now  under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  Episcopal  Board  of  the  United  States. 
So,  too,  the  system  of  bishops,  presiding  elders,  etc.,  of  the 
Methodist  Church  is  said  to  be  acceptable  to  many  because  of 
its  resemblance  to  what  they  have  been  accustomed.  Opposite 
tendencies  make  the  Congregational  system  pleasing  to  the 
democratic  desires  of  some,  and  more  still,  who  are  ardent 
Republicans,  consider  Presbyterianism  most  in  accord  with 
the  new  order  of  things. 

In  doctrine  the  Protestant  idea  of  a  free  gospel  as  contrasted 
with  the  mercenary  spirit  of  the  priesthood,  the  glorious  truth 
of  justification  by  faith  alone,  an  open  Bible  and  the  sole 
mediatorship  of  Christ,  are  common  Protestant  beliefs  that 
attract  many.  An  itinerating  ministry  with  an  unfailing  pas- 
toral supply  for  Methodist  and  Baptist  flocks,  the  fervid  Chris- 
tianity of  the  former,  and  the  congregational  singing  which  is 
made  a  feature  in  different  individual  churches  are  stated  as 
being  very  helpful  in  winning  converts. 

2.  Where  the  same  methods  in  the  main  are  employed  by 
all,  it  is  difficult  to  state  what  phases  are  most  characteristic 
of  the  work  of  various  denominations.  From  reports  at  hand 
it  would  seem  that  the  Methodist  bodies  have  the  most  widely 
distributed  evangelistic  force  together  with  a  very  promising- 
medical  work.  The  Baptist  societies  emphasize  evangelistic 
effort  also,  and  specialize  in  the  direction  of  self-support  and 
boarding  schools.  In  this  latter  direction  the  Friends,  Con- 
gregationalists  and  Presbyterians  are  likewise  doing  admir- 
ably. The  Seventh  Day  Adventists  are  specializing  along  med- 
ical lines.  The  Episcopalians  are  showing  what  can  be  ac- 
complished by  directing  a  native  Church  through  a  very  small 
force  of  missionaries  from  the  States.  The  Woman's  Chris- 
tian Temperance  Union  through  its  missionary  is  winning  the 


62  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

gratitude  of  Church  workers  and  native  Christians,  and  the 
Bible  and  Tract  Societies  are  furnishing  leaves  of  healing  for 
the  nation.  Eight  of  the  societies  have  excellent  periodicals, 
so  that  notwithstanding  the  small  population  compared  with 
that  of  many  mission  lands,  their  circulation  in  Mexico  ex 
ceeds  that  of  Christian  periodicals  in  any  other  mission  coun- 
try save  India. 

3.  An  examination  of  recent  reports  from  this  republic  re- 
veals elements  of  hope  in  the  united  body  of  Christian  work- 
ers there.  A  feeling  of  comity  among  the  societies  leading  to 
plans  for  a  better  distribution  of  the  force  is  a  striking  fact  in 
the  situation.  Gatherings  in  conferences  for  the  discussion 
of  mission  problems  and  the  special  meetings  of  young  people's 
societies  are  steps  in  the  direction  of  unity.  How  much  the 
people  appreciate  these  is  shown  by  the  self-sacrifice  of  twelve 
young  men  of  a  Presbyterian  Endeavor  Society  who  went  on 
horseback  300  miles  to  attend  a  convention,  though  the  trip 
required  twenty-one  days.  All  along  the  line  is  evident  a 
desire  to  come  to  self-support,  —  there  are  some  recalcitrants, 
of  course,  —  and  many  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  In  indi- 
vidual churches  pledges  toward  self-maintenance  are  called  for ; 
in  one  case  a  home  mission  board  was  organized  and  two  evan- 
gelists were  supported  by  it,  very  largely  through  the  efforts  of 
an  Endeavor  Society  of  ten  members.  Gatherings  of  Sunday- 
school  workers  and  the  introduction  of  better  methods  of 
teaching  are  also  yielding  their  fruit  among  all  the  denomina- 
tions. The  adoption  of  some  Association  methods,  as  the 
Friends'  plan  of  opening  a  reading  and  study  room  with  games, 
etc.,  indicates  the  demand  for  institutional  church  work  and 
for  the  Association. 

VII.  Results  of  Contact  with  Protesi  ant  Lands.  — 
I.  A  most  natural  result  of  such  contact  is  the  introduction 
of  material  helps  to  higher  living.  Modern  machinery  and 
manufactures  have  lightened  labor;  the  multiplication  of  rail- 
roads, electrical  plants  and  the  accompanying  energy  and  push 
are  material  blessings ;  and  the  ferment  of  thought  occasioned 


MEXICO  63 

by  newspapers  and  contact  with  enterprising  foreigners  are 
revolutionizing  the  former  Hstlessness.  But  a  far  higher  ben- 
efit accruing  from  this  new  contact  is  found  in  the  entrance  of 
thrift  and  self-reHance,  in  the  overthrow  of  prejudice  and 
superstition,  in  the  broadening  of  vision  incident  to  wider 
poHtical  ideals  and  religious  liberty. 

2.  The  other  side  of  the  shield  must  also  be  described.  We 
must  reluctantly  acknowledge  that  most  Americans  except 
missionaries  are  a  hindrance  to  religious  work.  Those  who  are 
religiously  inclined  find  few  ways  to  aid  in  Christian  work  — 
partly  because  the  missionaries  are  not  thoughtful  enough  to 
enlist  them ;  the  irreligious  usually  exert  a  very  bad  influence. 
They  attend  bull-  and  cock-fights,  show  an  obstinate  indiffer- 
ence to  the  Gospel,  and  by  their  intemperance,  skepticism, 
gaming  and  Sunday  desecration  are  a  stumbling-block  in  the 
way  of  missionary  effort. 

3.  As  to  the  results  of  missionary  work,  while  they  are  man- 
ifest, it  is  hard  to  say  precisely  how  much  is  due  to  this  factor 
and  how  much  to  the  civilizing  effect  of  higher  appliances 
and  ideas.  Good  judges  who  have  been  for  years  on  the 
ground  mention  numerous  fruits  of  Protestant  missionary  ef- 
fort. Only  three  testimonies  from  many  are  quoted,  and  first 
that  of  a  leading  Baptist  worker :  "  An  interest  in  education, 
especially  of  women,  has  been  awakened,  as  also  in  public 
charity  and  sanitation.  Toleration  has  been  increased,  so  that 
it  is  possible  as  was  not  formerly  the  case  for  a  Protestant  to 
live  in  safety.  The  people  have  learned  that  Protestantism  is 
not  synonymous  with  obscenity  and  infidelity  as  they  have 
been  taught  —  and  still  are  —  by  the  clergy.  Many  small 
churches  have  been  established  and  they  are  bound  to  grow 
in  membership  and  influence."  From  a  Methodist  Presiding 
Elder  is  quoted  the  following :  "  The  different  churches  work- 
ing here  have  evangelized  the  country  extensively  and  gathered 
in  many  members.  The  organizations  lack  stamina,  however, 
and  many  members  have  come  in  without  thoroughly  compre- 
hending the  step  and  what  is  expected  of  them.    The  churches 


64  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

organized  are  as  yet  far  from  self-supporting  and  consequent 
independence.  Much  school  work  has  been  done  also."  The 
Presbyterian  editor  of  "  El  Faro  "  writes :  "  There  is  evident 
a  general  enlightening  influence  on  the  mental  attitude  of  the 
people  which  is  hard  to  define.  An  influence  is  likewise  being 
exerted  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  which  is  slowly  chang- 
ing and  becoming  outwardly  more  what  it  is  apparently  in  the 
United  States.  Another  result  of  missionary  effort  is  the  es- 
tablishment of  churches  which  as  centers  of  Christian  life  in 
the  cities  and  country  districts  have  advocated  and  illustrated 
Sabbath  observance  and  practical  morality."  The  Christians 
who  are  won  from  the  lower  walks  of  life  are  inspired  with 
a  new  spirit  at  their  conversion.  Higher  standards  of  truth, 
honesty,  temperance,  morality  and  true  religion  supplant  the 
old  indifference.  The  practical  benefits  derived  from  economy, 
industry  and  an  interest  in  public  affairs  also  tend  to  produce 
a  better  intellectual  and  moral  environment. 

VIII.  Outlook  for  the  Future.  —  i.  The  great  national 
problems  that  Protestantism  must  help  to  solve  are  three  in 
number,  two  of  them  affecting  the  whole  population  and  the 
third  the  Protestant  Church  as  a  factor  in  the  national  regenera- 
tion. The  first  and  greatest  of  these  is  the  question.  Shall 
Romanism  again  dominate  the  republic?  Although  nominally 
the  State  ceased  to  be  under  the  power  of  the  Church  in  1857, 
there  are  influences,  especially  outside  of  official  circles,  which 
make  a  return  to  ecclesiastical  domination  appear  possible. 
Many  are  looking  forward  with  foreboding  to  the  time  when 
President  Diaz,  who  is  now  serving  for  his  sixth  term,  shall 
cease  to  be  their  leader.  Will  there  then  be  a  return  of  revo- 
lutions with  the  consequent  possibility  of  Roman  leadership? 
Popular  feeling  would  perhaps  bring  about  such  a  change, 
with  the  consequence  that  peace  and  liberalism  would  end.  A 
second  question  of  national  importance  is  the  educational  prob- 
lem. Schools  of  the  Church  are  exceedingly  poor  and  govern- 
ment schools  are  skeptical  rather  than  colorless  in  religious 
matters.     In  proportion  as  schools  increase  and  compulsory 


MEXICO  65 

attendance  is  enforced  the  danger  arising  from  such  conditions 
grows.  The  cycle  of  problems  surrounding  the  native  Prot- 
estant Church,  as  it  influences  the  republic,  is  a  most  perplex- 
ing one.  Many  of  these  churches  have  been  organized  by  native 
preachers  paid  by  missionary  boards.  Beginning  thus  in  de- 
pendence, the  precedent  is  a  difficult  one  to  overcome.  A 
letter  addressed  in  1896  by  the  Presbytery  of  Mexico  to  the 
Boards  laboring  in  that  republic  indicates  the  rising  sentiment 
of  independence  felt  by  native  leaders,  and  later  accomplish- 
ments in  different  denominations  prove  that  the  movement  is 
growing  in  power.  The  fear  expressed  by  some  that  this  spirit 
of  independence  may  lead  the  Mexicans  to  cut  loose  from  their 
foreign  fellow-workers  before  they  are  competent  to  be  left 
alone  is  not  confirmed  except  in  very  slight  measure. 

2.  The  missionary  solution  of  these  problems  is  suggestive, 
if  not  likely  to  become  operative.  Combat  the  power  of  Ro- 
manism, they  say,  by  preaching  a  positive  faith,  and  by  in- 
creased activity.  If  limited  efforts  have  accomplished  so  much, 
a  larger  force  and  a  stronger  backing  from  Protestant  lands 
will  effect  still  more.  In  educational  matters  the  boards  might 
combine  and  establish  one  strong  Protestant  institution,  sur- 
passing any  Mexican  college  now  in  existence,  thus  creating 
a  practical  ideal  for  the  state  and  for  Romanism,  as  well  as 
furnishing  a  place  where  Protestant  leaders  may  gain  the  best 
education  obtainable.  And  as  to  difficulties  connected  with 
the  native  churches  an  increased  responsibility  placed  upon 
their  membership  —  gradually  in  most  cases  —  and  the  exer- 
cise of  great  patience  and  perseverence,  together  with  a  more 
careful  training  of  those  to  be  set  apart  by  ordination  as  lead- 
ers of  such  churches,  will  greatly  improve  matters.  A  study 
of  the  work  of  the  most  nearly  indigenous  Protestant  Church, 
the  Mexican  Episcopal  Church,  also  furnishes  suggestions  to 
denominations  holding  widely  different  views  as  to  polity  and 
doctrine. 

3.  Elements  in  the  situation  inspiring  hope  for  the  future 
have  already  been  given.     A  stable  and  strong  government 


(>6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

under  the  leadership  of  Mexico's  noble  President,  an  improv- 
ing public  credit  attracting  to  the  republic  new  elements  of 
progress,  the  better  intellectual  training  of  children  and  youth, 
and  the  Godspeed  given  Protestant  schools  in  many  places, 
are  heralds  of  better  things.  Improved  methods  in  mission 
work,  the  growing  spirit  of  comity  and  cooperation  among 
different  branches  of  the  Protestant  Church,  the  dying  out 
or  lessening  of  prejudice  and  bigotry,  the  influence  that  must 
surely  proceed  from  the  rising  generation,  who  have  been 
reared  and  trained  under  Protestant  influences,  the  fact  that 
Spanish  is  very  easy  of  acquisition,  thus  making  the  missionary 
very  quickly  effective,  are  other  features  more  closely  related 
to  the  missionary.  The  factor  of  momentum,  which  the  above 
particulars  imply,  is  carrying  Protestant  ideas  into  many  high 
places  which  were  previously  hopeless  territory.  The  work 
thus  far  has  been  greatly  blessed  of  God  and  the  consecrated 
workers  in  that  land  are  looking  toward  far  larger  fruitage  in 
the  century  which  has  just  begun. 


Ill 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 

PART  I.  —  GENERAL 

As  ITS  name  indicates,  Central  America  forms  the  center  of 
the  American  Continent,  and  constitutes  "  the  land  bridge  " 
between  its  northern  and  southern  sections.  It  is  likewise 
near  the  geographical  center  of  the  world,  as  will  be  realized 
when  commerce  can  find  a  way  across  it  through  the  projected 
interoceanic  canals. 

I.  Physical  Features.  —  i.  Area  and  General  Character. 
— The  five  Central  American  republics,  together  with  the  col- 
ony of  British  Honduras,  occupy  an  area  of  196,637  square 
miles,  equal  to  that  of  the  New  England  and  Middle  States,  plus 
South  Carolina,  or  a  little  less  than  that  of  Spain.  The  phys- 
ical features  of  this  area  make  it  "  an  epitome  of  all  other  coun- 
tries and  climates  of  the  globe.  High  mountain  ranges,  iso- 
lated volcanic  peaks,  elevated  table-lands,  deep  valleys,  broad 
and  fertile  plains,  and  extensive  alluvions,  are  here  found 
grouped  together,  relieved  by  large  and  beautiful  lakes  and 
majestic  rivers;  the  whole  teeming  with  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  and  possessing  every  variety  of  climate,  from  torrid  heats 
to  the  cool  and  bracing  temperature  of  eternal  spring."  The 
mountains,  and  the  many  beautiful  volcanoes,  are  an  especially 
marked  feature  of  these  republics.  While  eruptions  have  re- 
peatedly been  destructive,  as  also  the  numerous  earthquakes 
occurring  in  the  same  region,  the  volcanic  ashes  have  accumu- 
lated into  plains  among  the  mountains  and  are  a  source  of 
fertility. 

67 


68  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

The  climate  varies  greatly  according  to  the  height  above  the 
ocean  and  the  direction  and  extent  of  mountain  ranges.  Every- 
where, however,  the  range  of  temperature  varies  Httle  —  from 
6°  to  12°  —  between  winter  and  summer.  Severe  thunder- 
storms are  Hkewise  universally  prevalent;  though  Atlantic 
slopes  are  moister  than  those  facing  the  Pacific,  while  the 
driest  regions  are  districts  protected  by  mountains  from  both 
oceans.  Some  of  these  districts  at  times  seem  arid  and  are 
wanting  in  the  luxuriant  vegetation  which  is  at  once  the  glory 
and  danger  of  lands  bordering  on  the  oceans.  Though  the 
mountains  prevent  the  extreme  heat  and  dampness  of  Central 
America's  tropical  location,  it  is  nevertheless  somewhat  trying 
to  foreigners,  unless  observance  of  a  daily  siesta  and  other 
precautions  are  observed.  If  salubrity  of  climate  is  desired, 
it  may  be  more  surely  found  on  the  comparatively  cool  and 
dry  Pacific  slope  than  on  the  Atlantic  side. 

2.  British  Honduras.  —  This  crown  colony,  famous  for  its 
exports  of  mahogany  and  logwood,  lies  in  the  extreme  north- 
east of  Central  America,  and  is  almost  exactly  the  size  of  New 
Jersey,  or  a  trifle  larger  than  Wales.  Looking  down  upon  it 
from  Victoria  Peak,  one  sees  a  vast  expanse  of  alternate  ridge 
and  valley  densely  wooded  and  dotted  here  and  there,  during 
the  proper  season,  with  groups  of  mahogany  cutters  and  their 
pioneer  "  huntsmen  "  who  guide  the  party  to  the  finest  trees, 
which  often  have  trunks  fifty  feet  in  height  and  twelve  feet 
in  diameter.  About  500  of  its  35,226  inhabitants  are  white. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  population  lives  in  Belize,  the  chief 
town,  where  the  blacks  are  allowed  to  be  self-governing  under 
a  queen  whom  they  elect  and  to  whom  they  submit  their  dif- 
ferences. 

3.  Guatemala,  the  Land  of  the  Quetzal.  — This  largest  and 
most  populous  of  Central  American  republics  is  about  one- 
half  as  large  as  Great  Britain,  or  a  little  smaller  than  the  two 
Virginias,  and  contains  almost  one-half  of  all  Central  Amer- 
ican people.  Though  the  climatic  zones  in  all  these  republics 
closely  resemble  those  already  described  in  the  chapter  on 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  69 

Mexico,  the  following  description  of  what  the  traveler  might 
see  in  descending  from  Guatemala,  the  capital  and  chief  mis- 
sionary center,  to  the  coast  will  aid  in  making  real  the  leading 
physical  characteristics  of  the  country  and  of  other  Central 
American  republics  as  well. 

"  The  descent  from  the  highlands  of  Guatemala  to  the  coffee- 
growing  zone  is  very  rapid.  In  a  few  hours  the  traveler  has 
left  the  tierra  fria,  passed  through  the  tierra  templada  and 
is  approaching  the  hot  region.  The  vegetation  rapidly  changes ; 
alpine  flowers  give  place  to  plants  of  a  more  luxurious  foliage. 
The  mountainsides  now  appear  covered  with  ferns  and  creep- 
ing vines,  growing  in  profusion  under  the  lofty  trees,  and  the 
deep  ravines  are  almost  hidden  in  a  thicket  of  greenery.  Oc- 
casionally magnificent  views  are  obtained  over  the  coast  plains 
seaward;  the  tree-clad  hills  of  the  foreground  slope  gently 
away,  and  beyond  stretches  a  velvet  carpet  of  waving  tree  tops 
as  far  as  the  white  shore  of  the  sea.  The  intense  green  of 
the  expanse  is  varied  by  the  paler  tints  of  sugar  plantations 
and  the  dark  shade  of  the  coffee  groves ;  a  silver  line  stream- 
ing through  the  woven  woods,  marking  the  course  of  a  river, 
with  a  few  small  huts  dotting  its  banks,  the  only  sign  of  life 
in  the  ocean  of  forest." 

4,  Honduras.  —  This  republic,  which  traditionally  derives 
its  name,  "  depths,"  from  the  difficulty  experienced  by  Colum- 
bus in  finding  anchorage,  is  the  third  in  size  of  the  Central 
American  countries,  having  almost  the  exact  area  of  Missis- 
sippi. Table-lands  crossed  by  fertile  valleys  and  mountain 
ranges  occupy  most  of  the  republic.  The  narrow  coastal  region 
is  damp,  the  rainfall  being  about  ten  feet  per  annum  along  the 
Atlantic.  In  the  North  under  the  trade  winds  the  rains  are 
almost  permanent,  but  the  Pacific  slope  is  dryer,  and  on  the 
mountains  the  climate  is  bracing  in  winter,  when  frosts  encrust 
the  leaves.  Honduras  is  richer  in  minerals  than  any  of  its 
sister  republics.  Silver,  gold,  rich  magnetic  iron  and  other 
metals  only  await  means  of  transportation  to  become  a  source 
of  large  wealth.    As  it  is,  gold  and  silver  constitute  by  far  the 


yO  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

largest  articles  of  export,  bananas  ranking  next  in  value,  with 
cattle  as  a  third.  The  coming  in  of  North  Americans  and  other 
foreigners  is  introducing  good  roads,  improved  methods,  etc., 
so  that  a  better  future  is  before  the  republic. 

5.  Salvador,  in  area  the  least  of  the  sisterhood,  is  a  little 
smaller  than  New  Jersey,  as  British  Honduras  is  a  trifle  larger. 
It  makes  up  for  limited  area  by  a  population  second  only  to 
Guatemala's  and  greatly  outranks  them  all  in  density  of  popu- 
lation, it  being  nine  times  as  dense  as  the  average  of  the  other 
Central  American  countries.  This  is  partly  accounted  for  by 
its  location  on  the  Pacific  slope.  Seen  from  the  west,  "  the 
plateau,  comprising  the  great  part  of  the  country,  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  mighty  wall  upheaved  by  nature,  with  a 
low  range  in  front,  but  separated  from  the  western  seaboard 
by  a  line  of  cone-shaped  volcanoes."  Everywhere  almost  are 
proofs  of  volcanic  action,  and  earthquakes  are  scarcely  less 
destructive  than  volcanic  eruptions,  which  are  here  almost  as 
disastrous  as  in  any  region  of  the  globe.  Thus  the  capital, 
San  Salvador,  "  has  been  overthrown  and  rebuilt  on  the  same 
site  no  less  than  seven  times  during  the  last  three  centuries." 

6.  Nicaragua.  —  This  republic,  resembling  an  isosceles  tri- 
angle in  shape,  is  of  special  interest  to  the  world  because  of  its 
relation  to  international  commerce  through  the  proposed  Nica- 
raguan  Canal.  In  area  somewhat  smaller  than  Maryland  and 
Virginia  combined,  it  presents  toward  the  Caribbean  Sea  an 
expanse  of  alluvial  plain,  covered  with  dense  forests,  which 
slope  upward  toward  the  West.  The  striking  feature  of  the 
republic  is  a  remarkable  depression  near  the  western  border 
which  is  filled  toward  the  south  with  Lakes  Managua  and 
Nicaragua,  the  latter  being  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water 
between  Lakes  Michigan  and  Titicaca.  Numerous  volcanic 
cones,  some  of  them  active,  stud  this  depression.  One  of  them, 
named  Conseguena,  was  in  1835  the  scene  of  a  most  destruc- 
tive eruption,  inferior  only  to  that  of  Krakatao  in  1883.  Dur- 
ing four  days  it  belched  forth  lava  and  sand,  the  latter  being 
carried  as  far  as  Jamaica  and  Bogota.     The  accompanying 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  Jl 

roar  was  heard  at  a  distance  of  800  miles.  It  is  said  that  no 
equally  large  region  bears  such  marked  traces  of  igneous  action 
as  that  between  the  Nicaraguan  lakes  and  the  Pacific.  It  was 
this  republic  that  the  American  filibuster,  Walker,  and  12,000 
followers  attempted  to  convert  into  a  vast  plantation  like  the 
Cotton  States.  Temporarily  successful,  he  was  overcome  in 
1857,  and  failing  in  his  endeavor  to  revive  slavery  there,  he 
said  when  dying :  "  I  have  defended  the  cause  of  the  slave- 
holders abroad ;  they  will  soon  have  to  defend  it  themselves  in 
their  own  sugar  and  cotton  fields."  Of  its  mines,  109  are 
worked  by  Americans,  which  are  another  link  between  Nica- 
ragua and  the  States. 

Its  eastern  portion,  where  most  of  the  missionary  work  is 
done,  is  Mosquitia,  or  the  Mosquito  Coast.  Belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  it  has  been  a  part  of  Nicaragua  since  i860.  It 
i-s  inhabited  by  a  mixed  race  of  Indians  and  negroes,  some 
15,000  in  number,  and  by  aboriginal  Indians. 

7.  Costa  Rica,  next  to  the  smallest  of  the  five  republics, 
nearly  equals  West  Virginia  in  size,  and  in  character  is  a 
plateau  between  the  two  oceans,  intersected  by  a  volcanic  range 
a  mile  in  height,  rising  at  one  point  to  11,500  feet.  In  popula- 
tion it  is  the  least  important  of  the  five,  having  310,000  in- 
habitants. Its  name,  meaning  "  Rich  Coast,"  was  probably 
given  in  derision  because  of  its  poverty,  or  else  on  the  nomen 
est  omen  principle.  Yet  since  the  discovery  of  the  precious 
metals,  it  has  been  growing  in  wealth  and  enterprise,  so  that 
it  is  perhaps  the  model  Central  American  republic  and  one  of 
the  most  prosperous.  This,  however,  is  mainly  owing  to  its 
agricultural  resources,  rather  than  to  mines,  and  secondarily  to 
its  relatively  superior  class  of  inhabitants,  who  are  "  the  most 
industrious  and  cultured  population  in  this  division  of  the  New 
World,"  It  is  certainly  "  rich  "  in  a  tropical  flora.  Its  prime- 
val forests,  covering  more  than  half  the  Atlantic  slopes,  con- 
tain "  an  amazing  variety  of  forms.  In  a  space  of  100  yards 
square,  more  types  are  here  met  than  in  100  square  miles  in 
North  Canada.     Its  fauna  also  is  exceptionally  rich  compared 


^2,  GEOGRAPHY  OF  PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

with  that  of  other  tropical  regions."  This  is  especially  true  of 
birds,  the  species  numbering  twice  as  many  as  are  found  in  all 
Europe. 

II.  Central  American  Peoples.  —  i.  The  six  countries 
are  not  greatly  dissimilar  in  the  composition  of  their  popula- 
tions. Numbering  more  than  three  and  a  half  million  (3,550,- 
100),  they  are  made  up  of  Indians,  mixed  races,  and  a  com- 
paratively small  proportion  of  Americans  and  Europeans.  Of 
the  950,000  abopigines,  the  larger  portion  are  found  in  Guate- 
mala. "  The  majority  of  the  population  now  consists  of 
Spanish-speaking  ladinos  or  mestizos,  the  offspring  of  Euro- 
peans and  Indians.  There  are  perhaps  30,000  whites,  Creoles 
and  immigrants,  and  a  larger  number  of  negroes,  mulattoes, 
the  offspring  of  negroes  and  whites,  and  zambos  —  the  off- 
spring of  negroes  and  Indians."  While  about  thirty  Indian 
languages  are  spoken,  most  of  the  aborigines  themselves  speak 
the  prevailing  Spanish  tongue. 

2.  Distribution.  —  Central  American  plant  and  animal  life 
most  abounds  in  the  moist,  warm  regions  near  the  coast.  Its 
human  inhabitants,  on  the  contrary,  "  flourish  in  the  drier 
parts,  where  agriculture  presents  fewest  difficulties  and  the 
conditions  of  health  are  favorable.  The  prevalence  of  malaria 
in  the  low  ground,  both  moist  and  dry,  leads  similarly  to  a 
concentration  of  population  on  the  highlands  which  are  free 
from  malarial  fevers.  Human  habitations  are  found  as  high 
as  10,500  feet,  but  above  that  level  the  mountain  slopes  are 
uninhabited.  On  the  low,  hot  plains  of  Peten  in  Guatemala 
there  is  only  one  person  to  two  square  miles,  while  in  the  high 
department  of  Totonicapam  the  density  of  population  is  285 
to  the  square  mile." 

3.  Racial  Characteristics.  —  Much  that  has  already  been  said 
of  Mexican  populations  is  applicable  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Central  American  countries. 

Of  the  Indians  two  varieties  should  be  noted.  The  Indios 
mansos  have  fixed  settlements,  and  were  agriculturists  at  the 
time  of  America's  discovery.    To  this  class  belongs  the  major- 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  73 

ity.of  Central  American  aborigines,  and  this  number  is  con- 
stantly increasing.  The  Indios  harharos  are  the  wild  prairie 
Indians  who  "  everywhere  withdraw  to  their  woods  before  ad- 
vancing European  culture,  all  contact  with  which  invariably 
involves  them  in  total  and  often  rapid  destruction.  For  them 
civilization  is  an  insidious  but  a  no  less  sure  and  deadly  poi- 
son." Both  classes  appear  youthful  even  in  old  age,  and  while 
not  as  robust  as  the  negro,  they  display  a  large  amount  of 
endurance  and  suffer  uncomplainingly.  Their  "  women  may 
daily  be  seen  trudging  to  market,  doing  their  three  and  a  half 
miles  an  hour  under  loads  of  ninety  to  no  pounds,  with  the 
baby  perched  on  the  hip.  The  Guatemala  Indians  are  much 
addicted  to  the  practice  of  eating  an  edible  earth  of  volcanic 
origin.  Christians  going  on  pilgrimages  also  eat  little  earthen 
figures  which  they  obtain  at  the  holy  shrines,  and  which  are 
supposed  to  heal  all  maladies." 

The  mestizos,  descended  from  a  white  father  and  an  Indian 
mother,  are  rapidly  increasing  and  all  other  shades  of  color 
are  disappearing  before  their  light  yellow  hue.  To  this  class 
belong  servants,  farmers,  herdsmen,  mendicants  and  banditti. 
"  In  social  intercourse  the  pure  Indians  are  preferable  to  the 
mestizos,  in  whom  are  concentrated  the  vices  of  both  races  — 
revenge  and  treachery,  combined  with  laziness  and  cowardice, 
forming  the  main  features  of  their  character."  A  few  mes- 
tizos have  risen  to  positions  of  honor  as  artisans,  traders, 
clergymen  and  even  as  state  officials. 

Zambos,  or  sambos,  half-breeds  of  negro  and  Indian  ex- 
traction, live  like  the  pure  negroes  and  mulattoes  in  the  coast 
districts  and  are  not  very  numerous.  Theirs  is  the  heaviest 
work  on  plantations  or  on  cattle  ranches.  Like  other  half- 
breeds,  they  try  to  pass  for  whites  when  possible. 

The  ruling  classes  are  the  Creoles  or  pure  whites,  though 
they  are  less  numerous  than  the  preceding  classes.  Most  of 
them  are  descendants  of  the  Spanish  conquerors.  Residing 
in  towns  mainly,  they  constitute  the  higher  stratum  of  society 
and  fill  the  most  honored  positions.     "Without  the  moral 


74  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

character  of  the  first  Puritan  settlers  in  North  America,  lack- 
ing both  the  steadfastness  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  trust- 
worthiness of  the  German,  the  Creoles  allow  themselves  to  be 
swayed  by  passions  and  capricious  impulses  which  can  be  held 
in  check  only  by  the  strong  arm  of  despotism.  They  acquire 
knowledge  readily,  but  superficially,  shrinking  from  all  earnest 
effort  and  ever  irresistibly  attracted  by  the  allurements  of 
pleasure." 

Immigration  to  these  countries  is  slight,  though  Costa  Rica 
encourages  it  and  receives  about  i,ooo  annually.  The  same  re- 
public has  a  Chinese  population  of  i,ooo,  while  in  Guatemala 
the  Tirolese  are  prominent  among  recent  immigrants. 

4.  If  the  future  of  Central  America's  population  may  be 
judged  from  the  past,  the  European  element  is  likely  to  degen- 
erate and  diminish  in  numbers  until  it  dies  out.  "  All  observers 
are  in  accord  that  the  pure  Indians  are  steadily  increasing,  and 
that  the  ladinos  [mestizos]  are  constantly  drawing  nearer  to 
the  Indian  type.  Here,  therefore,  the  relations  of  the  two 
races  are  the  reverse  of  those  prevailing  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  white  man  is  visibly  crowding  out  or  absorbing  the 
native  Indian." 

This  fact  is  interesting  in  view  of  the  historic  importance  of 
Central  American  races.  The  most  cultured  of  these  are  the 
Maya-Quiche  peoples  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  of  whom 
there  still  remain  500,000  of  more  or  less  pure  blood ;  the 
Chiapanec  group,  many  of  whom  are  found  to-day  in  Nica- 
ragua;  and  the  Lenca  tribes  of  Honduras. 

III.  Culture  and  Religion.  —  Roman  Catholicism  has 
tinged  to  a  considerable  extent  the  aboriginal  religions  and  is 
the  faith  of  descendants  of  the  Spaniards  and  of  the  mixed 
races.  Until  Protestant  missions  began  their  work,  the  Church 
was  the  only  source  of  both  culture  and  religion.  How  rela- 
tively high  a  stage  education  had  reached  in  Mexico  has  been 
already  seen.  Central  Americans  were  not  so  favored  by  the 
Church,  though  their  indigenous  culture  and  religion  were  more 
elevating  and  milder  in  character  than  those  of  other  races. 


CENTRAL    AMERICA  75 

1.  Central  American  Culture.  —  In  most  of  the  republics 
education  is  free.  Yet  the  incomplete  returns  from  the  six 
countries  show  only  3,926  lower  schools  with  173,855  pupils; 
59  secondary  schools  with  2,788  students  in  41  of  them;  and 
7  colleges,  one  of  which  has  180  students.  An  official  report 
of  Nicaragua,  issued  in  1895,  probably  contains  a  fair  state- 
ment of  conditions  existing  in  many  towns  of  Central  America. 
It  asserts  that  in  two  of  its  most  advanced  cities,  Granada  and 
Leon,  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  children  were  enrolled,  of  whom 
only  half  learned  anything;  while,  of  the  entire  population  of 
school  age,  only  about  three  per  cent,  mastered  the  subjects 
taught.  Newspapers  and  periodicals  are  published  to  some 
extent,  and  a  few  public  libraries  have  been  established.  In 
general  culture,  Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica  are  perhaps  the 
leading  Central  American  countries. 

2.  Religion  and  Superstition.  —  Complete  religious  freedom 
is  found  in  all  the  republics,  yet  by  far  the  most  of  the  people 
are  Romanists.  In  the  case  of  the  Indians,  who  are  usually 
more  fervent  Catholics  than  the  mestizos,  the  old  religion  is 
preserved  in  a  new  form.  "  In  many  places  dolls,  representing 
the  gods  of  their  forefathers,  are  hidden  under  the  altars  of 
the  churches ;  and  by  this  device  both  divinities  are  simulta- 
neously worshipped.  When  kneeling  before  Saint  Michael 
they  light  two  tapers,  one  for  the  dragon,  the  other  for  the 
archangel.  An  old  deity  corresponds  to  each  personage  of  the 
Christian  religion,  the  sun  to  God  the  Father,  the  moon  to  the 
Madonna,  the  stars  to  the  tutelar  saints.  Most  of  the  Indians 
think  there  are  two  gods,  one  of  whom,  *  God  of  the  Forest,'  at- 
tends specially  to  the  aborigines,  taking  no  notice  of  the  ladi- 
nos  [mestizos]  or  of  the  whites.  He  is  often  called  Duefio 
del  Palo  —  Lord  of  the  Tree  —  because  he  dwells  in  the  ceibas, 
and  to  the  foot  of  these  gigantic  trees  in  the  forest  clearings 
are  brought  the  first  fruits  of  the  harvest  and  the  chase.  The 
earth  is  also  worshipped,  but  feared  as  representing  the  prin- 
ciple of  evil." 


y^  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


PART  II.  — MISSIONARY 

I.  Phases  of  Central  American  Religion.  —  Some  fea- 
tures not  alluded  to  in  Part  I,  but  reported  by  missionaries,  will 
show  in  a  pictorial  way  the  difficulties  encountered  by  them 
in  their  work,  as  also  the  moral  environment  of  the  people. 

I.  Religious  features  that  are  more  or  less  common  in  all  of 
the  republics  are  pagan  rather  than  Christian  in  character. 
Sefior  Castells  thus  describes  a  temple  in  Tucuru  in  which 
Christians  worship :  "  It  consists  of  a  palm-leaf  hut,  with  a  bare 
floor  and  no  furniture  whatever.  Round  the  sides  stand  twelve 
life-size  figures,  made  of  canvas  and  stuffed  with  husks  of 
corn,  which  some  one  of  the  Indian  worshippers  had  painted 
with  the  features  and  dress  of  his  own  race.  When  I  went  in, 
two  women  lay  prostrate  on  the  floor,  and  one  of  them  screamed 
in  agonizing  tones,  '  My  Lords,  send  the  rod  of  your  power  to 
heal '  —  evidently  praying  to  these  apostles  on  behalf  of  some 
sick  relative.  Here  once  a  year  a  priest  celebrates  mass,  and 
when  he  came  last  he  had  stuck  a  paper  over  the  entrance  which 
read,  '  Haec  est  Domus  Dei  et  Porta  Coeli.'  Even  in  San  Jose, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  cultured  city  of  Central 
America,  we  have  the  four  walls  of  a  new  church,  consecrated 
to  the  Virgin  of  the  Scapular,  where  recently  a  raffle  was  held 
on  behalf  of  the  projected  edifice.  As  we  enter,  the  first  thing 
seen  is  an  inscription  professing  to  be  a  message  to  each  visitor 
from  the  Virgin,  who  says,  '  My  son,  behold  me  without  a 
temple.  Come,  help  in  building  it,  and  I  will  reward  thee  with 
Eternal  Life.'  Unless  the  authentic  Gospel  of  Christ  is  al- 
lowed to  change  these  things,  we  may  fear  that  before  long 
the  people  of  Central  America  will  have  lapsed  into  practical 
heathenism."  A  devotee  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in 
Nicaragua  thus  described  the  proceedings :  "  We  have  had 
three  days  of  carousal  here.  The  young  men  were  out  all  night, 
singing,  drinking,  firing  rockets,  shouting  out  salutations  to  the 
Virgin,  and  making  merry  in  every  way."  In  fact,  so  debased  is 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  ^y 

the  Church  in  most  of  the  republics  "  that  Roman  CathoHc  im- 
migrants from  foreign  countries  will  not  uncommonly  disavow 
all  connection  with  the  popular  religion,  and  attend  Protestant 
places  of  worship  instead."  Even  those  forms  of  Christianity 
which  are  found  in  Central  America  lie  altogether  beyond  the 
reach  of  a  large  proportion  who  are  adherents  of  Catholicism, 
while  in  the  large  cities  and  within  sight  of  churches  many 
grow  up  without  the  least  notion  of  Christianity. 

2.  With  the  incoming  of  modern  thought  the  educated  and 
ruling  classes  have  all  lost  faith  in  the  Church.  In  Guatemala, 
where  the  Government  at  present  is  decidedly  anti-Roman,  a 
festival  for  public  school  children  was  organized  in  1899.  It 
was  not  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  or  of  any  saint,  but  of  the  god- 
dess Minerva.  The  Government  sent  an  orator,  who  is  offi- 
cially reported  as  thus  addressing  the  children :  "  '  We  who  are 
censured  for  having  no  religion  only  because  we  have  broken 
off  the  bans  of  superstition  and  love  freedom,  have  also  our 
God  in  Minerva,  that  is  wisdom.'  The  journal  which  reports 
this  eloquent  address  concluded  its  editorial  comment  with  the 
following  sentence :  '  Let  it  be  well  understood,  therefore,  that 
the  Minerva  festival  is  the  apotheosis  of  free  thought,  the  one 
possible  factor  in  our  national  culture.'  " 

II.  The  Force.  —  The  societies  engaged  include  three  from 
the  United  States,  the  Bible  Society,  Central  American  Mis- 
sion, the  Presbyterians,  Seventh  Day  Adventists ;  four  from 
Great  Britain,  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  the  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Mission,  and  the  work  of  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Churches ;  and  in  addition  the  Moravian  Mission,  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  and  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society, 
Western  Conference,  West  Indies. 

I.  The  largest  body  of 'workers  is  connected  with  the  Mora- 
vian Mission  on  the  Mosquito  Coast,  "  where  they  have  practi- 
cally evangelized  the  whole  tribe  of  Indians,  numbering  10,000, 
who  inhabit  this  region."    One  of  their  workers,  Rev.  W.  Sie- 


78  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

borger,  has  translated  the  New  Testament  into  the  Mosquito 
language,  the  first  edition  of  which  was  printed  in  Germany, 
in  1888. 

2.  The  Bible  Societies  are  doing  an  exceedingly  important 
work  in  these  republics.  The  pioneer  was  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  which  began  operations  in  1812,  when 
it  was  still  a  criminal  offence  to  introduce  the  Word  of  God 
into  Spanish  territory.  Central  America  now  has  become  so 
interested  in  the  Bible  that  a  gold  medal  was  awarded  the 
Bible  Society  at  the  Central  American  Exposition  of  1897,  and 
the  Guatemala  State  Press  has  been  permitted  to  be  used  in  the 
publication  of  the  Scriptures.  In  the  case  of  one  republic, 
Costa  Rica,  the  bishop,  "  seeing  the  futility  of  his  past  efforts 
to  arrest  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  has  begun  to  import 
Spanish  Testaments  published  by  a  rival  Roman  Catholic  Bible 
Society  and  which  have  scarcely  any  notes."  With  this  fact 
should  be  coupled  another  statement,  namely,  that  after  the 
agent  had  reached  the  Costa  Rican  capital,  in  1899,  a  weekly 
magazine  was  started  for  the  express  purpose  of  attacking 
Bible  work.  The  priests  warned  the  people  from  the  pulpit 
against  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  a  French  Paulist  missionary 
is  travelling  about  the  country  denouncing  the  agents  as  the 
vilest  heretics,  and  is  distributing  controversial  pamphlets. 

The  American  Bible  Society,  which  began  its  labors  as  late 
as  1892,  is  already  meeting  with  success  under  the  experienced 
guidance  of  the  South  American  hero,  Penzotti.  Reporting 
from  Guatemala  he  states  that  as  a  rule  the  people  are  indif- 
ferent to  all  ideas  of  progress  and  look  with  suspicion  upon  in- 
novations ;  hence  his  colporteurs  are  often  exposed  to  assault, 
being  wounded  with  stones  and  otherwise  injured.  A  convert 
in  San  Salvador,  who  had  been  mainly  won  by  the  New  Testa- 
ment, testifies :  "  I  was  an  assassin,  thief  and  gambler,  and  was 
the  terror  of  my  poor  wife  and  children,  but  after  this  Bible 
reached  my  hands  I  noticed  on  reading  it  something  that  I  can 
not  explain ;  but  of  one  thing  I  can  assure  you,  that  such  a 
change  has  come  over  me  that  what  I  used  to  love  I  now  detest, 


CENTRAL   AMERICA  79 

and  what  I  hated  before  I  now  love.  I  have  not  changed  reH- 
gion,  but  rehgion  has  changed  me."  This  testimony  could  be 
duplicated  in  various  forms  in  many  a  regenerated  life. 

3.  The  Church  of  England,  through  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  is  doing  an  important  work.  From 
Belize,  British  Honduras,  the  cathedral  city  from  the  early 
days  of  British  occupation,  its  operations  have  been  continu- 
ously helpful,  though  much  of  it  has  been  for  English-speak- 
ing populations.  Their  lay  readers  are  distributed  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  the  Central  American  republics,  and  as  a  re- 
sult of  their  efforts  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  people  is  being 
greatly  advanced.  Some  of  its  clergymen  have  made  a  spe- 
cialty of  native  work,  including  the  aboriginal  tribes. 

4.  Baptist  congregations  also  form  a  chain  from  Belize  to 
the  Isthmus.  Their  labors  are  chiefly  among  the  English- 
speaking  negroes  from  the  West  Indies.  In  the  Republic  of 
Costa  Rica  they  have  evangelized  some  native  immigrants 
from  Northern  India,  this  work  being  accomplished  through 
the  medium  of  Hindi  Scriptures,  as  the  missionaries  could  not 
speak  the  Hindi  dialect.  Their  mission  in  the  same  republic 
is  the  first  Protestant  organization  that  has  become  incor- 
porated in  this  part  of  the  world. 

5.  The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mission  has  branched  out  from 
British  Honduras  where  it  originated  in  1826,  and  has  done 
considerable  work  in  one  of  the  Guatemala  seaports.  The  mis- 
sionaries are  at  present  working  almost  entirely  through  Eng- 
lish. 

6.  The  American  Presbyterians,  North,  have  been  estab- 
lished for  nineteen  years  in  Guatemala.  This  Mission  is  doing 
considerable  for  the  Quiche  Indians  through  their  Quezalte- 
nango  station,  those  dwelling  in  Merida  and  here  being  the  de- 
scendants of  Central  America's  most  enlightened  races.  Their 
senior  missionary,  Mr.  Haymaker,  naturally  laments  the  fact 
that  a  work  which  has  proven  successful  should  suffer  from  re- 
trenchment. He  writes :  "  We  are  following  the  economy  of  a 
farmer  who  goes  to  the  labor  and  expense  of  clearing  a  field, 


8o  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

ploughing,  sowing,  cultivating,  etc.,  and  then  is  too  economical 
to  incur  the  expense  of  reaping  more  than  a  few  handf uls  of  the 
heavy  crop."  He  likewise  reports  what  many  stations  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  could  often  secure,  if  inclined,  the  valuable 
cooperation  of  a  lady  well  advanced  in  life  who,  while  resid- 
ing in  the  capital  city,  has  voluntarily  given  herself  to  the  work 
of  aiding  in  missionary  operations,  thus  following  the  example 
of  a  chosen  few  in  Mexico  who  are  similarly  fruitful. 

7,  The  Central  American  Mission  has  done  a  pioneer  work 
that  is  somewhat  unusual.  Robert  Arthington,  of  Leeds,  whose 
philanthropic  aid  brought  so  much  to  Africa,  sent  through  the 
republics  in  1895  an  exploring  party  under  the  leadership  of 
the  Rev.  C.  H.  Dillon  of  this  Mission.  The  information  gained 
by  this  expedition  will  be  of  value  to  later  missionaries  who 
attempt  to  evangelize  the  aborigines.  This  Mission  makes  a 
specialty  of  laboring  among  the  Spanish-speaking  natives  in 
all  of  the  five  republics.  Women's  work  has  likewise  been 
emphasized  through  the  appointment  of  a  number  of  women 
missionaries. 

Operations  of  other  societies  not  specifically  described  above 
proceed  along  similar  lines.  Further  particulars  concerning 
their  work  will  be  found  in  Volume  II. 

HI.  Some  Characteristic  Difficulties  and  Encourage- 
ments.—  I.  Among  the  Indians,  despite  the  extent  to  which 
they  have  been  evangelized  on  the  Mosquito  Coast,  there  are 
still  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  Rev.  A.  Martin  says  that  the 
belief  that  sickness  or  death  is  caused  by  the  power  of  evil 
spirits,  and  that  God  is  so  benevolent  as  not  to  care  if  his  chil- 
dren sin,  together  with  their  practical  servitude  to  the  sorcerer, 
are  obstacles  of  great  importance.  Polygamy,  superstition,  vin- 
dictiveness  and  drunkenness  are  sins  against  which  the  con- 
vert must  perpetually  strive  in  view  of  his  inheritance  from  the 
past  evil  life.  As  Christianity  enters  the  interior  and  comes  in 
contact  with  the  aborigines,  additional  difficulties  are  men- 
tioned. These  have  already  been  alluded  to  in  Part  I.  En- 
couragements in  Indian  work  are  also  to  be  seen.     There  ap- 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  8 1 

pears  to  be  a  general  desire  on  their  part  to  remain  no  longer 
in  heathenism.  Christian  family  life  is  coming  into  existence 
with  education,  and  peace  and  joy  such  as  they  have  never 
known  under  the  old  religions  come  through  faith. 

2.  The  general  work  in  the  interior,  mainly  Spanish,  is  thus 
described  by  the  missionary  longest  resident  there.  Those 
elements  in  the  native  character  constituting  the  greatest  ob- 
stacles to  missionary  effort  are  the  inability  to  see  any  incon- 
sistency between  a  Christian  profession  and  an  abandoned 
life,  the  prevalent  tendency  toward  revolution  which  makes 
church  government  also  somewhat  difficult,  unreasoning  fanat- 
icism among  the  Catholic  population,  a  tendency  to  run  to 
extremes  carrying  the  inquirers  beyond  their  former  supersti- 
tion to  a  point  where  Christianity  cannot  reach  them,  and  their 
inability  to  look  beyond  present  trial  to  a  greater  good  to  fol- 
low. A  patient  and  steady  application  of  the  Gospel  in  a 
variety  of  ways  is  the  only  remedy  that  has  proven  potent. 
Where  applicants  for  church  membership  are  sufficiently 
tested  before  admittance  they  are  patient,  charitable  and  ag- 
gressive. These  converts  are  ever  on  the  watch  for  those 
whose  hold  on  Rome  is  loosening  and  who  have  not  yet  passed 
over  the  line  into  atheism.  As  they  deal  with  these  fellow- 
countrymen  they  encounter  such  objections  as  these:  It  is  a 
sin  to  think  or  reason  on  religion ;  the  Virgin  Mary  is  prac- 
tically a  greater  power  in  the  universe  than  God  himself;  a 
pure  belief  does  not  necessarily  require  from  the  believer  a  pure 
life;  and  among  the  liberals  one  must  contend  with  the  most 
corrupt  and  bestial  form  of  French  Positivism.  Perhaps  the 
nearest  point  of  contact  is  found  in  the  pauper  classes.  The 
evangelistic  message  awakens  new  desires,  educational  work 
develops  these,  and  the  Church  carries  on  the  process  to  com- 
pletion. Medical  missionaries  in  some  parts  of  these  republics 
are  not  especially  necessary  as  physicians  abound. 

3.  Except  along  the  coast  there  has  hardly  been  time  yet 
for  large  fruitage  from  work  attempted.  In  any  place  the 
tendency  to  measure  success  by  the  number  of  converts  in  a 


82  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

new  work  is  altogether  a  false  criterion.  An  experienced 
Central  American  Missionary  says :  "  In  my  opinion  the  num- 
ber of  converts  does  not  represent  more  than  five  per  cent,  of 
the  aggregate  results  of  our  work,  though  commonly  consid- 
ered one  hundred  per  cent."  A  number  of  churches  have  been 
organized,  religious  liberty  has  been  carried  from  the  realm 
of  theory  to  that  of  practice,  an  increasing  number  of  people 
are  reading  for  themselves  the  Word  of  God,  the  social  and 
moral  elevation  of  many  converts  is  notable,  and  the  evan- 
gelical atmosphere  is  constantly  widening. 

IV.  The  Future.  —  Much  still  remains  to  be  done. 
Seiior  Castells  asserts  that  "  in  Central  America  there  are 
found  at  least  a  hundred  towns  with  a  population  of  over 
8,000  to  100,000  souls  still  to  be  occupied,  as  indeed  there  are 
a  thousand  and  more  villages  where  the  Gospel  has  never  been 
proclaimed;  and  this,  too,  next  door  to  a  British  colony  and 
only  three  days'  sailing  from  New  Orleans.  The  field  is  an 
extensive  one  and  therefore  there  is  ample  scope  for  the  em- 
ployment of  every  gift;  pastors  to  organize  congregations 
among  the  foreign  Protestants  sojourning  in  our  midst ;  itiner- 
ant preachers  to  reach  those  who  are  scattered  throughout  the 
five  republics ;  men  with  a  knowledge  of  Spanish  to  preach  in 
the  large  cities ;  Christian  teachers  of  either  sex  for  school  work ; 
evangelists  with  a  strong  constitution  to  reach  the  Indians  in 
their  wilds  ;  printers  to  provide  the  necessary  literature ;  farmers 
W'ho  will  set  up  industrial  missions  for  which  indeed  there  is 
a  grand  outlook ;  colporteurs  that  will  go  scattering  the  Word. 
When  last  year  the  President  of  Honduras  visited  the  Bay 
Islands,  he  told  the  Protestant  workers  there  that  he  would 
be  glad  to  see  them  come  into  the  interior ;  and  other  presidents 
have  been  known  to  give  similar  invitations  in  behalf  of  the 
other  states.  One  can  easily  find  countries  in  other  directions 
that  have  as  large  and  even  larger  populations  quite  as  needy 
and  perhaps  more  neglected ;  but  we  do  not  find  anywhere  a 
field  at  once  so  easily  reached,  so  freely  open  to  missionaries, 
so  fruitful,  and  so  inviting  as  Central  America." 


IV 

THE    WEST    INDIES 

PART  I,  — GENERAL 

I.  Bits  of  History.  —  The  bow-shaped  chain  of  islands 
extending  from  Yucatan  to  the  central-northern  shores  of 
South  America  at  once  attracts  and  repels  the  reader.  It  was 
one  of  the  Bahamas  that  was  probably  Columbus's  landfall  on 
the  epoch-marking  twelfth  of  October,  1492.  These  islands 
were  the  scene  of  Spanish  cruelty  which  led  to  the  decimation 
of  the  Carib  Indians  and  the  consequent  introductiori  of 
African  slaves.  On  these  waters  bold  buccaneers  sought  their 
prey,  and  here  one  of  the  greatest  naval  battles  was  fought 
when  Rodney  in  1782  defeated  the  French  fleet.  In  the  West 
Indies  England  set  the  world  a  glorious  object  lesson  when 
she  abolished  slavery  in  her  island  possessions  (1834-38).  And 
it  was  here  that  the  United  States  in  1898  forced  Spain  to  bid 
adieu  to  that  part  of  the  New  World  which  she  had  dis- 
covered, developed  and  so  nearly  ruined. 

II.  The  Groups.  —  i.  The  Bahamas,  both  by  their  location 
near  Florida  and  their  reef  formation,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
portion  of  the  adjacent  mainland.  It  is  the  most  northern 
group  of  the  West  Indies  and  consists  of  twenty  inhabited 
and  many  uninhabited  islands  and  rocks  off  the  coast.  They 
belong  to  Great  Britain  and  had  in  1891  a  population  of  47,565, 
three-fourths  of  whom  are  black  or  colored.  These  are  mainly 
occupied  in  sponge-fishing,  salt-raking,  and  raising  early  veg- 
etables for  the  American  market.  Compared  with  the  other 
groups,  the  Bahamas  "  are  little  more  than  barren  wastes  ris- 

83 


84  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

ing  a  few  feet  above  sea-level,  in  some  places  so  low  that  salt 
lagoons  penetrate  to  great  distances  from  the  shore."  As 
they  lie  in  the  path  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  climate  and  pro- 
ductions are  almost  tropical. 

2.  The  four  large  islands  of  the  next  group,  formerly  known 
as  the  Greater  Antilles,  are  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Jamaica,  and 
Haiti  or  Santo  Domingo.  These  and  some  lesser  islands  in 
their  neighborhood  stretch  eastward  from  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  for  a  distance  of  more  than  1,300  miles.  They 
are  essentially  mountainous  in  character.  In  some  instances 
the  mountains  rise  abruptly  from  the  sea,  and  in  others  they 
slope  gently  back  through  verdant  tropical  valleys  to  inland 
ranges  8,000  feet  or  more  in  height.  An  English  admiral, 
wishing  to  illustrate  the  conformation  of  Haiti,  crumpled  a 
sheet  of  paper  between  his  fingers  and  threw  it  on  a  table; 
and  this  equally  well  illustrates  the  surface  of  Cuba  and  Jamaica 
also."  The  general  impression  made  upon  the  voyager  as  he 
approaches  these  and  other  West  Indian  islands  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  J.  Rodway :  "  Rising  from  the  deep  blue  sea, 
covered  with  rich  green  forests,  and  bathed  in  the  splendor 
of  tropical  sunlight,  the  rocky  islands  are  exceedingly  beauti- 
ful. In  sailing  or  steaming  along  from  one  to  another  they 
look  like  ocean  gems ;  here  a  mountain  enwrapped  in  clouds, 
there  a  field  of  yellow-green  canes,  again  a  little  town  em- 
bosomed in  precipices." 

Cuba,  the  largest  and  richest  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
came  under  the  protection  of  the  United  States  January  i, 
1899,  its  fate  having  been  sealed  the  previous  July  when  San- 
tiago fell.  That  event  brought  under  the  influence  of  the 
United  States  an  area  of  45,872  square  miles,  —  somewhat 
larger  than  Pennsylvania, — ten  per  cent,  of  which  is  cultivated, 
four  per  cent,  is  under  forest,  and  the  remainder  is  unreclaimed. 
The  coast-line  is  2,000  miles  long,  or  with  its  bays  and  islands, 
6,800  miles.  "  Except  on  the  south  central  side  the  coast  is 
abrupt  and  bordered  by  a  narrow  bench  of  coral  reef  elevated 
fifteen  feet  above  the  sea.     The  eastern  coast,  600  feet  high, 


THE    WEST    INDIES  85 

is  rugged  with  stair-like  terraces.  The  land-locked  harbors 
with  narrow  entrances  are  adapted  for  commerce  and  defence." 

The  proverbial  beauty  of  the  island  finds  expression  in  one 
of  Columbus's  early  letters  to  the  Spanish  Court,  in  which  he 
says :  "  It  is  the  most  beautiful  island  that  eyes  ever  beheld ; 
a  country  of  such  marvelous  beauty  that  it  surpasses  all  others 
in  charms  and  graces,  as  the  day  doth  the  night  in  luster." 
An  English  missionary  superintendent.  Rev.  G.  Lester,  ampli- 
fies this  description :  "  Its  beauty  lies  in  its  coast  scenery,  like 
that  for  instance  of  Baracoa  and  Matanzas ;  in  its  forests,  like 
those  of  the  Calderones ;  in  its  lofty  mountains,  like  Turquino, 
and  its  charming  valleys  such  as  Yumuri ;  in  its  tropical 
foliage,  in  which  palms  of  almost  every  variety  and  gorgeous 
flowers  form  so  conspicuous  a  feature ;  in  its  azure  skies,  its 
glorious  sunsets  and  its  brilliant  nights.  The  choicest  tropical 
flowers  flourish  under  its  sunny  skies  without  care  or  expense." 

Porto  Rico,  the  most  salubrious  and  fertile  of  the  Antilles, 
became  United  States  territory  by  the  treaty  with  Spain  of 
December  11,  1898.  Picturesque  hilly  landscapes,  clothed  on 
the  heights  with  virgin  forests  in  some  sections,  are  character- 
istic of  the  island.  "  The  slopes  are  gently  rolling  divides, 
succeeded  towards  the  littoral  by  well-drained  plains.  The 
undulating  surface  is  adapted  to  pasture  and  the  more  ordinary 
kinds  of  cultivation,  and  is  intersected  by  numerous  perennial 
rivers.  The  land  is  mainly  divided  into  small  independent 
holdings  belonging  to  the  peasantry  of  the  interior.  Small 
fruit  farms  are  the  most  numerous,  but  there  are  many  small 
and  some  large  coffee  estates,  and  a  number  of  sugar  estates, 
cattle  farms  and  some  tobacco  plantations."  The  adjacent 
Spanish  islands  of  the  Virgin  group  are  now  possessions  of  the 
United  States  and  contain  some  6,000  inhabitants. 

Jamaica  is  the  largest  of  the  British  West  Indies,  its  greatest 
length  being  about  150  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  north  to 
south  fifty  miles.  This  "  land  of  springs,"  as  its  name  signi- 
fies, sends  down  the  mountain  sides  over  falls  and  cataracts 
an  abundance  of  water.     Extensive  forests  and  tropical  pro- 


86  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

ductions,  which  can  here  be  grown  to  perfection,  make  the 
island  a  land  of  great  natural  beauty.  "  The  sugar  planta- 
tions, once  so  famous,  have  now  dwindled  to  an  area  of  only 
30,000  acres ;  and  although  other  products  have  been  largely 
increased  by  the  introduction  of  banana  and  orange  planting 
for  the  American  market,  the  island  has  never  regained  the 
prosperity  which  it  lost  on  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves." 
While  its  Government  and  the  extent  and  character  of  its 
education  and  religion  make  this  one  of  the  most  enlightened 
of  the  West  Indian  islands,  depressed  trade  conditions  have 
induced  a  state  of  grave  discontent  and  the  agitation  of  schemes 
—  more  or  less  wise  —  for  some  form  of  annexation  either  to 
the  United  States  or  Canada,  or  else  of  a  federation  of  British 
West  Indian  Islands.  It  may  be  that  conditions  of  climate 
and  race  present  difficulties  insuperable  by  any  or  all  of  the 
proposed  solutions  of  the  problem, 

Haiti,  or  Santo  Domingo,  is  an  island  divided  between  two 
republics  bearing  those  names.  Despite  its  old  Carib  name, 
"rough  land"  —  Haiti,  it  is  a  magnificent  island,  and  was 
the  first  one  to  be  colonized  by  Spain.  "  Horrible  persecutions 
and  massacres  of  the  natives  took  place,  which  led  to  the  entire 
extinction  of  the  aborigines  within  about  fifty  years.  Haiti 
was  then  almost  deserted  for  a  time,  save  as  a  place  of  call. 
Plantations  were  neglected;  cattle,  hogs  and  dogs  ran  wild 
and  increased  to  a  wonderful  degree,  until  the  French  buc- 
caneers settled  in  some  of  the  western  bays,  and  especially  on 
the  small  island  of  Tortuga."  Later  about  one-third  of  the 
island  was  ceded  to  France,  and  from  1697  the  portion  now 
known  as  Haiti  became  the  most  flourishing  of  the  West 
Indies.  Blunders  of  the  first  French  Republic  and  of  Napo- 
leon I  lost  it  to  France.  The  revolt  led  to  a  series  of  mas- 
sacres, "  ending  in  the  erection  of  a  negro  republic  where  no 
white  man  could  hold  any  real  property.  Since  1810  there 
have  been  negro  emperors,  kings  and  presidents ;  Haiti  has 
been  joined  to  Santo  Domingo,  which  proclaimed  its  independ- 
ence in  1 82 1,  and  again  separated,  and  the  whole  island  has 


THE    WEST    INDIES  87 

been  almost  ruined.  There  are,  however,  no  reasons  why  it 
should  not  be  very  prosperous,  save  the  want  of  good  govern- 
ment and  the  virtual  absence  of  white  men."  In  both  republics 
the  population  is  almost  wholly  made  up  of  negroes  and  half- 
breeds  who  speak  Spanish  almost  universally  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo, and  French  or  a  patois  in  Haiti.  The  latter  is  the 
more  prosperous  republic,  though  smaller  in  area. 

3.  The  Caribbean  chains  also  known  as  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
is  a  line  of  small  volcanic  mountains  whose  summits  project 
from  2,500  to  4,000  feet  above  the  ocean.  If  Trinidad  and 
Tobago  are  considered  as  belonging  to  the  next  group,  the 
chain  has  a  collective  area  of  2,620  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  330  per  square  mile,  a  density  very  ex- 
ceptional for  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Indeed  one  of  these, 
Barbados,  probably  has  a  larger  number  of  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile  than  "  any  other  separately  governed  colony  or 
state,"  namely  1,140.  These  islands  are  under  the  govern- 
mental control  of  Britain,  Denmark,  France,  Holland  and 
Sweden. 

4.  The  fourth  group,  known  by  the  Spanish  as  the  Leeward 
Islands,  are  more  properly  called  the  Venezuelan  group,  as 
they  extend  along  its  coast  and  are  only  outlying  portions  of 
South  America.  Barbados  probably  belongs  to  this  group,  as 
Trinidad  and  Tobago  certainly  do,  though  often  reckoned  as 
part  of  the  Caribbean  chain.  The  Netherlands  own  Curaqoa 
and  its  dependencies,  and  Venezuela  possesses  Margarita,  while 
Trinidad  and  Tobago  are  British. 

III.  Climatic  Conditions.  —  i.  Temperature.  —  Lying 
mostly  within  the  tropics,  these  islands  are  almost  constantly 
fanned  by  sea-breezes,  so  that  the  heat  is  not  usually  exces- 
sive. Moreover,  the  long,  cool  nights  are  a  daily  relief  in 
most  islands.  Though  the  heat  of  the  lowlands  is  trying,  the 
missionaries  can  find  refuge  in  the  cooler  highlands,  since 
one-sixth  of  the  area  is  more  than  1,500  feet  above  the  sea. 
With  the  exception  of  part  of  the  Bahamas,  the  islands  are 
within  the  isotherms  of  y7°  and  82°  F. 


88  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

2.  Rains,  Winds  and  Health.  —  The  rainy  season  ordinarily 
lasts  from  June  to  October.  During  the  same  period  the  in- 
habitants must  expect  the  dreaded  hurricanes  —  a  word  cor- 
rupted from  the  Carib  huracan,  signifying  a  high  wind.  With 
the  exception  of  the  coast  towns,  where  yellow  fever  is  en- 
demic, the  missionary  can  guard  himself  from  disease  during 
the  summer,  while  the  West  Indies  are  becoming  a  popular 
health  resort  in  winter  for  invalids  as  well  as  for  tourists. 
Malarial  fevers  are,  however,  prevalent  in  some  sections. 

IV.  The  Inhabitants.  —  i.  Races.  —  These  are  of  Euro- 
pean, Asiatic,  or  negro  origin.  The  latter,  mainly  descendants 
of  African  slaves,  greatly  preponderate;  though  the  Asiatics 
are  increasing.  Only  a  small  remnant  of  the  original  Carib 
and  other  Indian  tribes  survive.  At  least  sixty  per  cent,  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies  are  mulattoes,  about  3,000,000 
of  the  total  population.  The  Chinese  or  Hindus  are  found  in 
almost  every  island,  the  former  in  Spanish  and  the  latter  in 
English  and  French  territory.  In  Jamaica  alone  in  1896  there 
were  14,118  East  India  immigrants,  while  the  United  States 
census  of  Cuba  registers  for  1899  a  Chinese  population  of 
15,020.  Natives  of  the  islands  as  distinguished  from  the 
immigrants  are  known  as  Creoles,  whether  white  or  colored. 
"  They  are  usually  well  made,  shapely,  vigorous  and  active, 
brave,  lively  and  quick-witted,  but  also  at  times  vainglorious, 
untrustworthy  and  insolent." 

As  the  single  island  of  Cuba  contains  about  one-third  of  the 
population  of  the  West  Indies,  a  special  paragraph  describing 
its  inhabitants  is  called  for.  We  quote  from  a  recent  article 
by  the  English  author  named  above.  ''  The  Cuban  of  the  city 
is  generally  a  person  of  small  stature,  something  of  a  fop,  a 
student  of  propriety,  a  lover  of  pleasure  and  of  gambling,  and 
for  the  most  part  none  too  well  informed.  As  to  the  negro, 
the  prophecies  which  have  declared  that  '  he  will  oust  the  white 
man '  are  wholly  unsupported  by  observation  and  inquiry. 
The  life  of  a  Cuban  peasant  is  not  a  thing  to  be  coveted.  His 
house  is  a  miserable  shanty,  his  fields,  thanks  to  his  own 


THE    WEST    INDIES  89 

neglect,  are  often  overrun  by  vagrant  pigs;  the  methods  of 
agriculture  which  he  employs  are  antiquated.  Of  domestic 
comfort  he  knows  nothing.  His  food  consists  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, plantains,  rice  and  sugar  cane,  with  an  occasional  taste  of 
pork,  or  tassajo  (dried  cow),  or  bacalao  (dried  cod).  He 
manages  to  exist  in  defiance  of  the  laws  of  hygiene;  he  is 
a  slave  of  customs  which  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world  has 
long  discarded.  His  great  aversion  is  a  government  official ; 
his  great  ambition  is  to  purchase  a  lottery  ticket ;  his  constant 
desire  is  to  avoid  work.  He  spends  his  life  in  a  sort  of  sullen 
contentment,  ignorant,  and  devoid  of  aspiration." 

2.  Languages.  —  Reclus  asserts  that  "  as  regards  their 
speech,  the  negro-English  patois  is  less  harmonious  than  the 
French  Creole,  but  it  is  equally  lively  and  terse.  Apart  from 
a  few  simple  expressions,  the  uninitiated  Englishman  would 
never  succeed  in  understanding  his  mother  tongue  as  spoken 
by  the  Jamaica  or  Barbados  islanders.  Of  all  the  local  jar- 
gons, the  most  corrupt  is  the  papamiento  of  the  Venezuelan 
seaboard,  in  which  the  chief  elements  are  Dutch  and  Spanish, 
and  which  has  preserved  a  few  Carib  and  Goajir  terms."  In 
Cuba,  which  had  in  1899  a  white  population  of  over  a  million, 
or  sixty-six  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  Spanish  is  the  prevalent 
tongue,  as  it  is  also  in  Porto  Rico.  In  Haiti  French  is  the 
official  language. 

3.  Education  is  not  common  and  where  nominally  obtain- 
able, it  is  of  a  very  rudimentary  and  superficial  character. 
Ambitious  youths  seek  in  other  lands  privileges  which  are 
denied  them  at  home.  The  attitude  of  the  United  States  to- 
ward Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  can  not  but  be  helpful  in  the 
future  history  of  those  islands;  while  the  experiment  of  in- 
viting a  number  of  native  teachers  to  study  at  a  special  school 
provided  for  them  at  Harvard  University  in  the  summer  of 
1900,  has  likewise  proved  a  great  intellectual  stimulus  to  those 
leaders. 

4.  The  religious  character  of  the  islanders  is  far  from  satis- 
factory.    Except  on  some  of  the  English  and  Danish  islands, 


90  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Catholicism  is  the  nominal  religion  of  the  masses.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  however,  superstition  and  ignorance  are  very  prev- 
alent. Where  the  people  are  comparatively  cultured,  as  in 
Cuban  cities,  there  is  considerable  apathy  felt  toward  the 
Church,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  corruption  of  the  priesthood. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  result  of  the  summoning  to  Rome  of  lead- 
ing Spanish  ecclesiastics  of  the  West  Indies  and  South  America 
will  be  to  purify  the  Church,  especially  in  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Cuba. 

Where  there  is  absolute  independence,  as  in  the  two  black 
republics,  there  is  said  to  prevail  side  by  side  with  the  State 
Church  the  superstitions  of  voodooism,  extending  according  to 
report  even  to  human  sacrifice  in  interior  and  degraded  sec- 
tions. 

V.  "  The  West  Indian  Enigma."  —  i.  The  economic 
phase  of  the  problem  is  becoming  in  some  of  the  islands  a 
most  serious  one.  Mr.  Rodway  puts  the  case  very  concisely : 
"  The  great  labor  experiment  of  negro  slavery  was  tried  on 
a  vast  scale;  and,  whatever  may  have  been  the  evils  of  that 
system,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  was  successful  from  an 
economic  point  of  view.  It  has  resulted  in  peopling  the 
islands  with  a  tropical  race  which  seems  well  fitted  to  carry 
out  their  development,  and  may  perhaps  some  day  make  an 
impression  on  the  world.  Without  the  negro  these  beautiful 
islands  would  possibly  have  been  abandoned  long  ago;  for 
since  the  emancipation  of  slaves  the  whites  are  becoming  fewer 
every  decade,  except  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  Experiments 
have  been  made  in  bringing  laborers  from  India  and  China 
with  good  results  in  Trinidad,  but  the  general  position  of  all 
the  islands  in  1899  may  be  considered  as  almost  stagnant.  The 
future  of  the  West  Indies  is  bound  up  with  the  future  of  cane- 
sugar;  other  tropical  products  seem  likely  always  to  remain 
of  secondary  importance." 

As  to  this  industry  the  British  Royal  Commission,  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  West  Indian  sugar-growing 
colonies,  reported:    That  the  industry  is  in  danger  of  reduc- 


THE   WEST   INDIES  9 1 

tion  or  extinction  through  competition  of  sugar-growing  coun- 
tries assisted  by  bounties;  that  in  some  of  these  islands  no 
other  industry  can  profitably  take  its  place,  and  hence  the  labor- 
ing class  would  be  so  affected  that  the  colonial  revenues  would 
be  reduced  to  a  point  where  they  would  not  meet  the  cost  of 
administration.  In  consequence  relief  measures  were  author- 
ized by  the  Colonial  Loans  Act  of  1899  which  appropriated  to 
the  British  West  Indies  £663,000  ($3,315,000).  If  this  meas- 
ure fails  to  relieve  the  situation,  the  future  of  the  West  Indies 
becomes  more  enigmatical  than  ever. 

2.  The  political  elements  in  the  problem  arise  from  the  igno- 
rance and  lack  of  independence  of  the  masses.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  aboriginal  races  have  almost  entirely  dis- 
appeared, and  that  the  negroes  have  been  in  absolute  slavery 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  still  are  so  in  a  sense.  Hence  they 
are  not  yet  in  a  condition  to  have  any  influential  part  in  the 
Government.  In  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  the  white  race  predomi- 
nates, constituting  according  to  the  census  of  1899  fifty-five 
per  cent,  of  the  male  population  in  the  former  island  and 
sixty  per  cent,  in  Porto  Rico.  In  strength  of  influence  the 
whites  have  an  even  larger  ascendancy ;  so  that  in  those  islands 
the  situation  is  not  quite  so  acute,  though  friction  with  the 
United  States  presents  still  graver  problems.  A  large  major- 
ity in  Jamaica  and  the  other  islands  except  Haiti  are  of  the 
colored  race  and  are  subject  in  a  real  though  not  nominal 
sense.  In  islands  where  the  colored  majority  is  great,  the 
home  Government  rules  through  a  few  of  its  representatives, 
and  it  is  a  question  whether  self-government  is  a  practicable 
measure.  If  Haiti  is  looked  to  for  an  answer,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  such  government  has  been  almost  a  failure ;  though 
in  the  eastern  or  Santo  Domingo  section  where  the  white  ele- 
ment is  more  numerous,  the  case  has  not  been  so  hopeless. 
Possibly  the  United  States  has  come  to  the  West  Indies  to  show 
the  world  that  education  and  a  pure  religion  can  fit  men  for 
self-government ;  and  if  so,  Porto  Rico  is  undoubtedly  the  best 
place  in  which  to  initiate  this  object-lesson. 


92  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 


PART  II.  — MISSIONARY 

Work  in  these  islands  resembles  more  nearly  than  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America  what  is  usually  called  home  missionary 
effort.  Much  of  it  is  done  through  the  medium  of  the  English 
language,  and  many  of  those  who  are  thus  cared  for  are  in  a 
condition  not  greatly  worse  than  the  colored  population  of  the 
United  States.  Missions  among  Spanish-speaking  peoples  are 
similar  in  character  to  those  of  Mexico,  though  the  work  is  in 
a  less  fully  developed  stage. 

I.  The  Forces.  —  The  following  societies  are  engaged  in 
missionary  effort  in  the  islands:  American  boards:  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society;  American  Bible  Society; 
American  Church  Missionary  Society;  American  Friends' 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions;  American  Missionary  Association 
(Congregational)  ;  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  General 
Council  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  North  America  ; 
Board  of  Home  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America ;  Board  of  Missions,  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (South);  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance; 
Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Missions ;  Congregational  Home 
Missionary  Society ;  Executive  Committee  of  the  Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  (South)  ; 
Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society ;  Domestic  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  P.  E.  Church ;  Foreign  Mission  Com- 
mittee of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada ;  Home  and  For- 
eign Missionary  Society  of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church;  Home,  Frontier  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of 
the  United  Brethren  in  Christ ;  Independent  Baptist  Missionary 
Movement;  International  Medical  Missionary  and  Benevolent 
Association ;  Mission  Board  of  the  Christian  Church ;  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (North)  ;  Peniel 
Hall  Mission ;  Reformed  Catholic  Board ;  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  (Army  Branch).  British  societies:  Baptist 
Missionary  Society;  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  Ply- 


THE   WEST   INDIES  93 

mouth  Brethren ;  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel ; 
United  Methodist  Free  Churches,  Home  and  Foreign  Missions ; 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland ;  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Missionary  Society,  Other  societies:  Jamaica  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society;  Jamaica  Church  of  England  Home  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Society ;  Moravian  Missions ;  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Jamaica ;  Wesleyan  Methodist  Home  and  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society  of  the  Western  Annual  Conference,  West  Indies. 

11.  Three  Lines  of  Missionary  Effort.  —  If  differentia- 
tion in  work  among  the  various  classes  in  the  West  Indies  can 
be  made,  it  is  along  racial  lines.  In  addition  to  the  three  races 
named  below,  there  is  much  most  necessary  work  being  done 
for  those  of  European  birth  or  descent,  especially  by  the  Wes- 
leyans  and  by  the  Jamaica  Church  of  England  Home  and  For- 
eign Missionary  Society.  The  latter  society  is  not  found  in 
the  statistical  tables  of  Volume  II  for  the  reason  that  its  work 
is  so  different  from  that  usually  followed  that  it  could  not  be 
entered.  In  addition  to  its  missions  to  East  Indians,  it  has  a 
very  wide  home-mission  work  in  Jamaica,  and  otherwise  is 
making  its  influence  felt  for  good  throughout  the  island.  Its 
secretary  says  of  this  organization  what,  with  modifications, 
might  be  written  of  some  other  churches  on  the  islands :  "  The 
ordinary  work  of  the  Church  of  England  in  Jamaica  is  largely 
missionary  and  is  performed  by  about  100  clergy,  who  are  one- 
third  Englishmen  born  and  two-thirds  Jamaica  born;  and  the 
Jamaica  Church  of  England  Missionary  Society  is  for  the  ex- 
tension of  Christian  effort  among  the  population  not  hereto- 
fore reached  by  Christian  influence.  This  is  largely  done 
through  the  agency  of  about  150  colored  and  black  catechists, 
their  work  being  superintended  by  the  clergy  aforesaid." 

I.  Missions  among  Negroes.  —  Included  under  this  heading 
will  come  efforts  for  "  Creoles  "  and  "  the  colored,"  as  negroes 
of  various  degrees  of  purity  are  designated.  In  the  distinctively 
negro  island  of  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo  Catholicism  has  a 
strong  hold  in  an  external  way,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
negroes  of  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba,  who  constitute  about  one-third 


94  GEOGRAPHY  OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  the  inhabitants.  In  Jamaica,  where  they  claim  ninety-five 
per  cent,  of  the  population,  they  are  very  little  under  Catholic 
influence.  So  far  as  Romanism  affects  missions,  it  seems  to 
have  made  the  negroes  feel  that  Protestants  are  fools  or  de- 
mons, and  that  if  they  heed  evangelical  teachings  they  will  be- 
come mad.  Protestantism's  emphasis  of  the  Bible  leads  the 
priests  to  direct  their  attacks  against  it  as  being  the  devil's 
book.  In  Protestant  Jamaica,  however,  the  Bible  is  the  only 
book  commonly  found.  Whether  from  superstition  or  some 
higher  motive  most  who  read  have  in  their  homes  copies  of  the 
Scriptures  and  make  use  of  them'. 

In  this  island  and  in  Haiti  voodooism  or  Obeahism  is  the  su- 
perstition which  causes  the  most  trouble.  The  center  of  the  sys- 
tem is  the  Obeah-man,  usually  a  crafty  old  negro,  whose  hoary 
beard  and  forbidding  aspect,  as  well  as  his  acquaintance  with 
medicinal  and  poisonous  plants,  qualify  him  for  successfully 
imposing  on  the  superstitious.  The  very  sight  of  his  ragged 
bundle,  a  coffin  which  is  most  useful,  and  a  bottle  containing 
parrot's  feathers,  graveyard  earth,  coffin-nails,  etc.,  causes 
the  stoutest  negro  to  tremble  before  him.  If  hostile  to  the 
church,  he  may  place  some  charm  under  the  door  in  order  to 
make  the  minister  fall  from  grace,  or  at  least  keep  the  children 
from  entering.  If  a  negro  imagines  that  Obeah  is  set  for  him, 
he  will  pine  away  and  eventually  die  from  fear. 

In  addition  to  these  difficulties  are  others  of  a  different  char- 
acter. Impurity,  —  indicated  in  Jamaica  by  the  fact  that  over 
sixty  per  cent,  of  negroes  are  of  illegitimate  birth,  —  their  love 
of  pleasure  and  show,  intemperance  and  laziness  are  sins  to  be 
overcome.  In  Jamaica  the  Creoles  are  "  the  cause  of  about 
nine-tenths  of  the  disturbances  at  elections,  parochial  board 
meetings  and  church  gatherings.  They  are  less  teachable  than 
the  negroes  and  there  is  a  mutual  dislike  between  the  two 
classes." 

The  work  of  missionaries  has  aimed  to  meet  the  special  needs 
of  negro  life.  Starting  from  a  very  common  desire  to  have 
their  children  educated,  mission  schools  have  been  a  very  sue- 


THE    WEST    INDIES  95 

cessful  agency  in  winning  the  people.  Having  learned  to  read, 
their  natural  reverence  for  the  Bible  makes  its  teaching  very 
influential  in  life.  The  Catholic  emphasis  of  the  Mass  makes 
the  Bible  view  of  the  atonement  an  important  point  for  the 
missionary  to  enlarge  upon.  In  all  kinds  of  work,  the  polite- 
ness of  the  people  and  their  willingness  to  hear  greatly  aid 
the  Protestant  worker.  Social  purity  agitation,  young  people's 
societies,  stereopticon  exhibitions,  special  meetings  for  children 
and  mothers,  are  all  aids  to  the  more  essential  and  fundamental 
work  of  preaching  and  teaching.  House  to  house  visitation, 
either  with  the  object  of  selling  religious  literature,  or  in  order 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  people,  is  especially  needful  as 
a  feeder  and  conserver  of  all  forms  of  effort.  Though  little 
tried,  some  of  the  missionaries  feel  that  medical  missions  might 
be  most  fruitful  in  negro  work. 

2.  The  Hindus  are  receiving,  in  proportion  to  their  numbers, 
a  large  amount  of  attention,  though  very  much  more  ought  to 
be  done  for  them.  The  majority  are  in  British  Government 
employ,  if  the  indenture  system  may  be  so  described.  "  The 
Government  imports  them  and  leases  them  to  planters  for  a 
term  of  five  years,  for  which  the  Government  receives  twenty- 
four  cents  per  week,  and  the  individual  twenty-four  cents  per 
day  if  a  man,  and  eighteen  cents  if  a  woman.  They  board  and 
clothe  themselves,  having  free  rent  and  medical  attendance. 
After  being  bound  to  the  estate  for  five  years  they  become 
*  free  coolies  '  and  can  go  anywhere  on  the  island.  During  the 
second  term  of  five  years  they  may  hire  themselves  to  the 
planters,  the  Government  still  receiving  for  each  twenty-four 
cents  per  week  from  the  employers.  After  that  they  are  free 
and  can  return  to  India  or  go  where  they  choose.  Those  who 
intend  to  return  home  can  not  eat  meat,  lest  on  returning  they 
offend  the  gods."  Many  of  them  remain  on  the  islands  and  by 
their  economy  and  business  ability  take  trade  from  the  natives. 
They  usually  retain  the  customs  of  India  in  their  place  of 
exile,  so  that  the  traveler  notes  signs  of  caste,  a  profusion  of 
jewelry  on  ankles,  arms  and  nose,  and  in  the  evening  he  may 


96  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

hear  Hindu  music  chanted  to  the  accompaniment  of  hand- 
clapping  and  tin  bells. 

Work  among  the  coolies  is  very  much  like  that  in  India  with 
slight  differences.  The  missionaries  are  more  dependent  upon 
interpreters  and  commit  a  larger  part  of  the  work  to  natives 
than  in  India.  Moreover,  they  find  much  literature  ready  to 
hand  in  the  publications  prepared  for  Asiatic  workers.  Even- 
ing classes  for  those  whose  contracts  require  them  to  labor 
during  the  day  are  much  appreciated,  while  Sunday-schools 
and  the  regular  services  of  the  Church  are  useful.  Schools 
labor  under  difficulties,  both  because  of  sensitiveness  on  the 
part  of  parents  in  cases  of  discipline  and  for  the  reason  that 
the  children  do  not  like  the  confinement  of  the  school-room. 

The  need  for  enlarging  this  important  branch  of  effort  is 
made  evident  in  a  communication  addressed  in  1898  to  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  by  the  Archbishop  of  the  West 
Indies,  located  in  Jamaica.  Conditions  which  are  strong  in  that 
island  where  there  are  about  15,000  Hindus  are  still  stronger 
in  Trinidad  where  the  number  is  more  than  five  times  as  great. 
The  appeal  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  less  difficult  to 
reach  these  people  in  the  West  Indies  than  in  the  environment 
of  their  native  land ;  that  the  majority  of  these  immigrants  will 
remain  permanently  in  the  islands ;  that  the  vast  majority  of 
the  coolies  are  from  the  North- West  Provinces  and  that  ninety- 
five  per  cent,  of  them  speak  Urdu  while  Hindi  is  understood 
by  all ;  that  efforts  made  by  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Presbyterians  show  that  excellent  results  may  be  secured,  es- 
pecially where  thoroughly  consecrated  and  well-trained  natives 
of  India  and  missionaries  who  have  had  wide  experience  in 
that  empire  engage  in  the  work ;  and  that  the  most  feasible  way 
to  meet  the  need  is  to  secure  leaders  trained  in  India  who  are 
accustomed  to  evangelistic  work  and  have  the  power  to  train 
subordinates.  This  appeal  is  enforced  by  the  thought  that 
thousands  return  to  their  fatherland  as  thoroughly  heathen  as 
when  they  came  to  serve  for  years  in  a  Christian  community, 
and  by  the  further  consideration  that  many  of  these  coolies, 


THE   WEST   INDIES  97 

especially  the  Mohammedans  among  them,  go  about  from 
house  to  house  reading  and  preaching  their  own  superstitions. 
While  the  Society  in  their  reply  do  not  promise  to  send  aid, 
they  have  made  inquiries  in  India  in  the  hope  that  one  or  two 
well  qualified  missionaries  may  be  found  to  do  the  work,  and 
with  the  special  hope  that  the  native  Indian  Church  may  be 
led  to  undertake  this  peculiar  form  of  home  mission  service. 

3.  Missions  among  the  Spanish-speaking  Romanists  of  the 
West  Indies  have  not  been  actively  prosecuted  until  the  recent 
transfer  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States.  Since 
that  time  there  has  been  a  very  ready  response  on  the  part  of 
Christians  of  the  States  to  the  new  obligations  arising  from 
open  doors  and  the  new  national  responsibility. 

The  most  successful  missionary  work  previous  to  the  Amer- 
ican occupation  was  done  through  the  hero  of  Cuba,  Dr.  Alberto 
J.  Diaz,  laboring  under  the  auspices  of  the  Southern  Baptists. 
Brought  up  as  a  Romanist  and  having  never  seen  a  Bible  until 
as  an  adult  he  saw  one  in  the  United  States,  he  became  a  new 
man  in  Christ  Jesus.  In  spite  of  difficulties  arising  from  six 
imprisonments  and  all  sorts  of  opposition,  he  had  baptized  with 
his  own  hands  3,000  people  within  eleven  years,  besides  plant- 
ing seven  missions  and  setting  fourteen  men  at  work.  During 
the  war  these  missions  were  scattered  and  their  helpers  put  to 
death;  but  1,500  converts  survived  and  now  live  in  the  new 
atmosphere  of  religious  freedom. 

Less  than  three  years  of  active  effort  on  the  part  of  many 
societies  has  seen  work  initiated,  despite  the  serious  difficulties 
of  reconstruction  and  the  perpetual  friction  between  natives 
and  the  United  States.  The  attitude  of  the  priesthood  of  the 
two  islands  where  almost  all  of  the  Spanish-speaking  work  is 
done,  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  is  well  illustrated  by  this  circular 
distributed  as  soon  as  missionaries  began  energetic  efforts  in 
Porto  Rico.    It  is  dated  Ponce,  Nov.  19,  1898. 

"  To  the  Catholics.  —  Separate  yourselves  entirely  from  the 
Protestants  and  leave  them  in  peace.  By  no  means  attend  their 
meetings.    Avoid  all  religious  conversation.     If  they  come  to 


98  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

your  homes  speaking  of  salvation  or  religion,  throw  them  out 
in  the  act.  By  no  means  receive  their  Bibles  and  other  litera- 
ture. Watch  your  younger  children  with  great  care  that  they 
may  not  attend  any  Protestant  exercise,  and  that  they  may  not 
receive  of  the  Protestants  either  books  or  presents  or  play- 
things. I  St.  Because  Protestantism  is  truly  heretic  and  of  the 
worst  kind.  2d.  Because  the  Protestants  do  not  come  of 
Christ;  the  first  Protestant  did  not  appear  until  15 17  after 
Christ.  3d.  Because  the  Protestants  falsify  the  Bible  in  many 
points.  They  mutilate,  and  when  they  explain  it,  they  do  not 
present  it  without  the  words  which  favor  their  error.  4th.  The 
Apostles'  Creed  they  indignantly  trample  upon.  The  Creed 
says :  '  Christ  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary ' ;  and  they  deny  the 
virginity  of  Saint  Mary.  The  Creed  says :  '  Believe  in  the 
Catholic  Church.'  They  combat  this.  5th.  At  other  times 
they  contradict  the  more  clear  words  of  Christ,  e.g.,  '  My  flesh 
is  truly  bread;  My  blood  is  truly  drink.'  Porto  Ricans,  be 
firm  in  the  faith  of  your  fathers !  Live  and  die  in  the  Catholic 
religion,  which  is  the  only  divine,  the  one  which  comes  rightly 
of  Christ  and  for  the  great  and  only  truth.  Note:  With  this 
action  we  advise  the  public  of  a  series  of  leaflets  of  great  in- 
terest to  Catholics  of  Porto  Rico,  which  will  be  distributed  in 
the  church  free  every  Sunday.  May  the  divine  aid  accompany 
them  through  the  way  of  the  Immaculate  Mary.  Now  in  her 
protection  we  place  them !  " 

In  contrast  with  this  typical  view  of  the  missionaries  must 
be  placed  other  viezvs,  illustrating  the  impression  created  upon 
workers  by  their  new  field.  Almost  everywhere  among  the 
men  was  present  a  state  of  apathy  or  else  of  decided  hostility 
toward  the  Church.  Religion  had  no  hold  upon  any  one  save 
"  old  maids  of  both  sexes,"  to  quote  a  common  Havana  saying. 
Priestly  corruption  was  so  common  that  no  one  except  a  few 
devout  women  could  abide  their  ecclesiastical  guides.  In  the 
case  of  the  reconcentrados  the  feeling  against  the  Church  was 
still  stronger.  General  Weyler  had  driven  the  rural  popula- 
tion into  the  cities.     "  Their  homes  were  burned,  their  cattle 


THE    WEST    INDIES  99 

were  killed,  their  implements  were  destroyed.  They  had  no 
money  to  pay  expenses  in  the  cities.  No  provision  was  made 
for  their  support.  As  a  result  of  this  diabolical  policy,  400,000 
men,  women  and  children  died.  What  did  the  Church  do 
for  their  relief?  Nothing.  Was  she  able  to  help?  Yes; 
what  she  needed  was  not  ability  but  disposition.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Cuba  offered  to  give  Spain  $20,000,000  to  build  four 
battleships  to  crush  the  insurrection.  He  proposed  to  strip 
the  saints  and  the  churches.  Why  could  not  this  money  be 
used  to  feed  and  clothe  and  house  the  reconcentrados  ?  It 
could  have  been  so  used,  if  the  ecclesiastics  had  been  willing. 
But  to  their  thought  the  Cubans  are  no  better  than  beasts 
and  deserved  no  help  whatever  from  the  Church."  Rev. 
A.  McLean,  Secretary  of  the  Foreign  Christian  Missionary 
Society,  speaks  strongly  in  the  above,  but  not  more  severely 
than  hundreds  of  thousands  felt  toward  their  enemies  in  both 
Church  and  State  at  the  end  of  the  war  against  Spain.  Dr. 
Carroll,  late  Commissioner  of  the  United  States  to  Porto  Rico, 
writes,  quoting  from  Mr.  Brau,  the  Catholic  historian  of  that 
Island :  "  '  In  this  island  are  many  priests  who  do  not  lead 
very  moral  lives  and  who  frequent  gambling  houses.'  He 
speaks  of  priests  who  gamble,  dance,  go  to  the  cock-pit,  enter 
into  the  practices  of  the  money-changer,  and  associate  with 
the  dissolute,  and  says  that  their  mode  of  life  seems  more  akin 
to  that  of  Oriental  seraglios,  than  to  the  austere  silence  of  the 
rectory." 

Such  being  the  attitude  of  the  two  parties,  what  means  are 
being  employed  for  the  redemption  of  these  islands  ?  Children 
are  very  evidently  strategic  material,  judging  from  experience 
the  world  over,  as  well  as  from  the  Catholic  proclamation  just 
quoted.  Too  many  of  these  are  accurately  described  in  a 
strong  article  by  a  recent  visitor  to  Porto  Rico.  "  The  children 
have  a  short  and  cheerless  childhood.  Gambling  with  coffee 
grains  for  pennies  is  their  standard  amusement,  though  kite- 
flying has  its  season  and  cock-fighting  its  attraction.  It  is 
noticed  that  the  children  seldom  sing.     In  fact  it  is  a  land 


lOO  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

without  songs.  The  birds,  as  is  common  in  the  tropics,  do 
little  more  than  chirp."  These  children  with  their  "  banana 
stomach,"  due  to  distension  with  large  quantities  of  bananas, 
their  chief  diet,  gladly  respond  to  the  kindness  of  Christian 
school  and  Bible  teachers.  Scripture  pictures  and  cards  are 
gladly  received  and  prove  germs  of  blessing  to  the  family  in 
many  cases.  The  magic  lantern  has  especial  charms  for  them, 
as  well  as  for  adults. 

Woman  as  the  religious  element  of  the  population  is  also 
to  be  sought.  The  writer  just  quoted.  Rev.  J.  M.  McElhinney, 
says  of  them  and  of  their  homes :  "  The  house  has  but  few 
attractions  for  them.  The  few  primitive  articles  of  house- 
hold furniture  are  either  reeking  with  filth  or  creeping  with 
insects.  The  air  is  polluted  with  smoke  of  charcoal,  which, 
having  no  chimney  as  an  avenue  of  escape,  takes  its  time  in 
getting  out  through  the  chinks  of  the  roof.  There  are  no 
books  or  papers  in  the  home.  They  could  not  be  read  if  they 
were  there.  The  mind  gets  its  subsistence  in  conversation 
with  neighbors  at  the  '  rumshacks,'  at  the  streams  washing 
clothes,  at  the  coffee  plantation  —  somewhere  in  the  open.  The 
house  is  a  place  of  last  resort,  a  place  to  sleep  in,  where  sense 
is  dead  to  surroundings."  From  this  description  of  a  large 
majority  of  homes  and  their  occupants,  one  can  readily  imagine 
the  joy  that  the  warm-hearted  Christian  woman  can  bring  into 
such  lives,  after  the  deep-seated  prejudice  has  been  banished 
through  a  variety  of  more  public  ministries. 

The  sick  of  both  sexes  are  another  strategic  element  in  so- 
ciety. Dr.  Carroll  strongly  pleads  for  this  form  of  missionary 
effort.  "  There  is  a  great  deal  of  suffering  among  the  poor  for 
lack  of  medical  attendance.  All  the  municipalities  pay  '  titular 
doctors  '  for  service  of  the  poor,  but  the  poor  get  for  various 
reasons  little  attention.  If  the  municipal  doctor  shows  re- 
luctance to  respond  to  a  call,  the  people  hesitate  to  go  to 
him  again.  They  seemed  to  have  a  horror  of  going  to  the 
hospital.  Forbidding-looking  places  they  were,  some  of  them. 
One  of  the  best  physicians  in  the  island  told  me  that  hardly 


THE   WEST   INDIES  lOI 

one  person  out  of  a  hundred  among  the  peasant  class  has  a 
doctor  at  death.  These  common  people  are  full  of  sympathy 
for  one  another,  and  a  kindness  done  to  them  would  win  their 
hearts." 

Some  lessons  learned  in  the  two  years  of  recent  missions 
among  Spanish-speaking  West  Indians  are  the  following.  In 
a  transition  period,  the  best  plan  seems  to  be  to  have  a  morning 
service  in  English  for  Americans  and  other  English-speaking 
people.  Next  comes  a  Sunday-school  in  Spanish  and  English 
for  all  children,  and  in  the  evening  follows  a  service  in  Spanish 
only.  Schools  are  being. established,  though  the  character  of 
those  in  Cuba  especially,  as  well  as  the  attitude  of  their  leading 
teachers  toward  Christianity  must  be  far  better  since  nearly 
2,000  of  them  came  to  Harvard  at  Government  expense.  For 
six  weeks  they  learned  in  the  United  States  much  of  modern 
educational  methods  and  of  Protestant  civilization.  The  special 
care  received  by  the  women  among  them  from  the  American 
Board's  well-known  Spanish  missionary,  Mrs.  Alice  Gordon 
Gulick,  made  a  most  favorable  impression  upon  them.  Despite 
the  improvement  in  Government  schools,  those  conducted  by 
missionary  societies  are  especially  useful,  both  because  the 
Bible  and  religion  of  the  Protestant  type  can  be  taught  in  them, 
and  also  because  they  are  the  training  places  for  church 
workers.  The  early  tendency  to  secure  small  halls  in  out-of- 
the-way  places  is  considered  a  mistake  in  view  of  the  heat 
and  the  apparent  cheapness  of  such  missionary  efforts,  when 
compared  with  the  costly  edifices  and  plant  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Dr.  Carroll,  now  a  Secretary  of  the  Methodist  Board 
(North),  also  recommends  plenty  of  singing,  an  emphasis  of 
young  peoples'  work,  Sunday-schools,  and  all  proper  social 
features.  Like  all  Latin  races,  the  Cubans  and  Porto  Ricans 
are  social  and  given  to  pleasure.  Yet  there  is  no  proper  pro- 
vision for  the  development  of  this  side  of  their  nature,  and 
Protestantism  must  supply  what  the  past  has  not  granted  them. 
In  places  where  parents  are  anxious  to  learn  English;  he  urges 
the  development  of  this  form  of  work.     But  above  all,  as  Dr. 


I02  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Diaz  so  abundantly  proved  in  the  days  of  Spanish  rule,  what 
the  missionary  must  most  depend  upon,  is  an  open  Bible  taught 
by  word  and  deed,  and  a  wide  application  of  its  principles  in 
all  departments  of  life.  An  English  missionary  writer  who 
knows  the  islands  well  says :  "  Before  the  people  of  the  United 
States  lies  a  task  that  is  sufficient  to  tax  their  vast  resources, 
their  proverbial  ingenuity  and  their  Christian  graces.  But  to 
free  and  then  to  mold  for  a  nobler  life  a  people  of  such  capac- 
ities, is  a  mission  that  any  great  nation  might  honorably  covet. 
...  As  far  as  possible  Cubans  should  be  employed  as  mis- 
sionaries to  their  countrymen.  There  is  a  strong  sense  of  fel- 
lowship in  the  Cuban  mind;  there  are  patriotic  ambitions  in 
which  no  foreigner  can  fully  share.  And  in  all  labor  and 
underlying  all  plans  of  service  there  must  needs  be  a  strong, 
fervent  and  triumphant  expectation  of  success." 


SOUTH  AMERICA 

PART    I.  — GENERAL! 

I.  Panoramic  View  of  South  America.  —  If  this  conti- 
nent, containing  some  7,000,000  square  miles,  —  nearly  one- 
seventh  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe  —  could  pass  north- 
ward beneath  the  eye  of  a  beholder  poised  hypothetically  in 
mid-air  above  its  central  meridian,  a  most  varied  and  remark- 
able scene  would  greet  his  delighted  vision.  First  he  would 
see,  as  he  looked  southward  toward  the  vast  pear-shaped  mass, 
the  low-lying,  verdure-clad  shores  skirting  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  Atlantic.  The  well-wooded  expanse  of  the  Guianas  would 
fade  out  into  llanos  of  Venezuela  and  Colombia  and  the  north- 
ern slopes  of  the  Andes.  Next  would  appear  the  Guiana  high- 
lands succeeded  by  the  selvas,  —  exuberant  expanses  of  trop- 
ical vegetation  filling  the  basin  of  South  America's  "  liquid 
equator,"  the  largest  river  in  the  world  in  respect  to  volume 
and  extent  of  drainage  area.  Meanwhile  the  backbone  of  the 
continent  has  raised  itself  aloft  in  the  Andes  of  Ecuador  where 
twelve  peaks  tower  three  miles  or  more  above  the  adjacent 
ocean.  As  regions  further  south  appear  the  continent  narrows. 
The  Brazilian  highlands  on  the  east  are  less  densely  wooded, 
while  the  western  mountain  ridges  make  Peru  an  American 
Tibet.  On  its  southeastern  border,  mainly  in  Bolivia,  lies  Titi- 
caca,  the  continent's  one  large  lake,  rivalling  North  America's 
Ontario  in  size.     Passing  these,  one  sees  the  Gran  Chaco  wil- 

1  Reprinted  from  the  author's  contribution  to  "Protestant  Missions  in 
South  America,"  1900. 

103 


I04  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

derness  and  the  famous  pampas  beyond.  To  the  eastward  are 
the  hills  of  Uruguay,  and  on  the  west  the  Andes  retreat  far 
enough  from  the  coast  to  form  the  fertile  plain  of  Chile.  There 
now  remain  on  the  south  only  the  comparatively  barren  wastes 
of  so-called  Patagonia.,  and  the  fiords  cutting  into  the  moun- 
tains of  southern  Chile  and  tapering  off  into  the  bleak  and 
stormy  archipelago  of  which  "  The  Land  of  Fire  "  is  the  larg- 
est. During  this  survey  the  aerial  beholder  has  noted  the  reg- 
ularity of  the  coast  and  the  fact  that  no  extensive  bays  have 
indented  the  land,  nor  any  large  islands  fringed  the  continent, 
save  in  the  extreme  southwest,  if  the  more  remote  Falklands 
and  South  Georgia  are  neglected. 

II.  River  Systems.  —  Returning  now  to  examine  more  in 
detail  South  America's  characteristic  features,  one  is  struck  at 
the  outset  with  its  remarkable  river  systems  to  which  the  con- 
tinent owes  so  much,  and  which  when  improved  will  provide 
it  with  a  ramifying  network  of  deep  waterways,  thus  from  a 
commercial  and  missionary  point  of  view  increasing  greatly 
its  accessibility.  Only  three  of  these  systems  will  be  de- 
scribed. 

I.  The  Orinoco.  —  This  river,  third  in  size  on  the  continent, 
takes  its  rise  far  up  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  southeastern 
Venezuela.  Early  in  its  course  it  sends  off  the  Cassiquiare, 
which  strangely  enough  is  the  connecting  link  between  it  and 
the  Rio  Negro,  a  tributary  of  its  powerful  rival,  the  Amazon. 
Descending  between  the  mountains  and  impenetrable  forests 
of  Venezuela  and  the  Colombian  llanos,  it  dashes  over  the  fa- 
mous cataracts  of  Maipures  and  Atures,  the  latter  nearly  five 
miles  wide  and  six  miles  long.  Below  its  confluence  with  the 
Apure,  it  traverses  the  llanos  with  a  width  of  four  miles  and 
later  rolls  its  milk-white  flood  into  the  Atlantic  through  a 
delta,  125  miles  long.  Of  its  1,550  miles,  more  than  1,400  are 
navigable  in  two  stretches.  Most  of  its  larger  affluents  are 
likewise  navigable;  so  that  the  Bogota  missionary,  if  he  so 
desired,  could  ascend  it  and  the  Meta  to  within  sixty  miles  of 
his  destination.    Despite  the  extensive  overflows  of  the  rainy 


SOUTH    AMERICA  IO5 

season,  this  river  is  of  exceeding  importance  to  the  country's 
future. 

2.  The  Amazon,  or  Amasons.  —  The  disputed  etymologies 
of  this  name  were  once  its  striking  characteristics :  one  theory 
held  that  it  was  given  because  early  voyagers  saw  female  war- 
riors or  Amazons  on  its  banks ;  the  other  etymology  is  traced 
to  the  name  given  by  the  Indians  to  its  destructive  tidal  bore 
which  they  called  Amassona  —  "  boat-destroyer."  To  modern 
economists  and  merchants  it  stands  preeminent  among  the 
streams  of  the  world  because  of  the  vast  extent  of  its  naviga- 
ble waters  —  some  50,000  miles  with  its  tributaries,  one-half 
of  which  is  by  steamers,  —  and  the  commercial  possibilities  of 
its  enormous  basin  which  is  estimated  to  include  more  than 
two-thirds  as  many  square  miles  as  all  Europe  contains. 
Though  some  unsuccessful  attempts  at  colonization  have  been 
tried  along  its  lower  reaches,  practically  nothing  has  been 
accomplished  by  Western  enterprise.  Thus  one  notes  the  para- 
dox "  that  this  forest,  the  largest  and  densest  in  the  world, 
imports  from  North  America  much  of  its  building  timber,  and 
some  of  the  steamers  on  the  river  have  found  it  cheaper  to  con- 
sume English  coal  than  to  burn  the  wood  which  grows  so 
abundantly  on  every  side."  From  the  Atlantic  to  the  heart 
of  Peru  and  Ecuador  a  navigable  highway  stands  ready  for 
the  missionary,  not  to  speak  of  the  great  tributaries  which 
will  in  the  future  carry  him  to  remote  tribes  and  districts  one 
day  to  be  opened  up  by  modern  exploitation. 

3.  The  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  River  of  Silver,  is  more  properly 
an  estuary  into  which  flow  the  waters  of  the  Uruguay,  Para- 
guay and  Parana.  Unitedly  they  pour  into  the  ocean  a  vol- 
ume of  water  second  only  to  the  outflow  of  the  Amazon  and 
Congo.  Though  the  Paraguay  traverses  the  great  marsh  of 
Xarayes,  elsewhere  it  passes  through  fertile  districts  abound- 
ing in  excellent  timber.  Missionaries  on  board  Brazilian  steam- 
ers can  journey  up  this  river  and  its  affluents  to  Cuyaba,  2,360 
miles  above  Buenos  Aires.  Fortunately,  too,  they  are  open 
to  the  commerce  of  every  nation.    The  Paraguay  empties  into 


I06  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

the  Parana,  which  deserves  its  name,  meaning  "  kinsman  of 
the  sea."  Rising  about  a  hundred  miles  northwest  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  it  boasts  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  rapids  in  the 
world,  ending  near  the  mouth  of  the  Iguassu.  For  a  hundred 
miles  up  the  river  it  extends  "  between  ranges  of  frowning 
cliffs  which  confine  the  stream  to  a  narrow,  rocky  bed,  little 
more  than  lOO  yards  wide.  Through  this  gorge  the  water 
pours  in  tumultuous  fury."  Like  the  Parana,  the  Uruguay  is 
obstructed  by  rapids ;  yet  it  is  navigable  by  sea-going  steamers 
to  a  point  373  miles  from  the  sea,  while  coasting  vessels  can 
reach  Salto,  and  other  vessels  above  the  rapids  may  proceed 
beyond  Uruguay's  northern  boundary. 

According  to  Rohrbach  the  mean  distance  from  the  sea  of 
any  average  district  is  343  miles,  this  continent  being  surpassed 
in  this  respect  only  by  Europe  and  North  America.  When  to 
this  fact  is  added  its  extensive  river  system,  it  will  be  evident 
that  South  America  is  remarkably  accessible. 

III.  Highlands  and  Mountains.  —  i.  The  Highlands  of 
Guiana  and  Brazil,  though  separated  by  parts  of  the  Amazon 
valley,  present  similar  characteristics,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
one  area.  They  vary  in  height  from  1,000  to  4,000  feet,  on 
an  average,  with  occasional  elevations  of  8,500  feet.  Here  may 
be  the  future  sanitaria  of  the  missionaries,  though  the  bulk  of 
their  work  will  be  in  the  more  populous  coastlands.  Trees  in 
the  hilly  region  are  less  lofty  and  numerous  than  in  the  selvas, 
to  be  later  described.  In  compensation  for  the  charming  lux- 
uriance of  those  regions,  one  here  finds  flowers  in  far  greater 
abundance,  with  a  vast  variety  of  exquisite  ferns,  and  on  the 
higher  elevations  the  Brazilian  pine  lends  a  new  beauty  to  the 
rolling  woodland.  In  the  Guiana  section  the  lofty  mountains 
are  bare,  rugged  and  often  grotesque.  Most  of  these  ranges 
are  flat-topped,  "  appearing  as  though  planed  down  by  some 
titanic  instrument." 

2.  The  great  mountains  of  South  America,  stretching  along 
its  entire  western  border,  are  most  interesting.  Characterizing 
them  generally,  Dr.  Greene  says :    "  The  awful  canons  and 


SOUTH    AMERICA  lO/ 

chasms  of  the  Andes,  the  subHme  height  of  their  peaks,  the 
difficult  and  dangerous  character  of  the  passes,  the  rich  and 
varied  vegetable  life  of  the  eastern  slope,  and  the  steep  descent 
of  the  generally  barren  Pacific  slope,  all  give  elements  of  great 
interest  to  this  range."  In  formation  "  three  main  sections  are 
clearly  to  be  distinguished :  The  solitary  chain  of  the  Southern 
Andes ;  the  double  chain  of  the  Central  Andes,  with  their  ele- 
vated upland  valleys,  groups  of  connected  hills  and  mountain 
lakes;  lastly,  the  diverging  Northern  Andes,  with  their  low- 
lying  valleys  and  detached  elevations."  With  its  declivities 
and  plateaux  this  chain  occupies  nearly  a  sixth  part  of  the 
continent. 

Andean  scenery  is  naturally  varied.  The  southernmost  sec- 
tion is  marked  by  luxuriant  and  extensive  forests,  steep  ravines 
and  picturesque  fiords,  all  crowned  by  one  of  "  the  most  im- 
posing peaks  of  the  whole  Andean  range.  Mount  Sarmiento, 
which  rears  its  spotless  cone  of  snow  to  a  height  of  6,910  feet. 
.  .  .  The  beauty  of  this  peak  is  enhanced  by  the  numerous 
blue-colored  glaciers  which  descend  from  the  snowy  cap 
through  the  dusky  woods  of  the  mountain's  base  to  the  sea, 
looking,  as  Darwin  expresses  it,  like  so  many  frozen  Niagaras." 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  features  of  the  Chilian  range  are 
the  fantastic  shapes  assumed  by  the  weather-worn  soft  rock, 
resembling  the  spires  and  turrets  of  ruined  churches  and  cas- 
tles, and  the  variety  of  coloring  of  the  different  soils.  With 
the  sparse  vegetation  of  this  region,  the  mountain  slopes  are 
strikingly  beautiful,  the  blues,  reds,  yellows  and  whites  pro- 
ducing wonderfully  fascinating  effects. 

The  Bolivian  Andes  enclose  "  the  navel  of  South  America," 
a  plateau  as  large  as  Ireland,  having  an  elevation  of  some 
13,000  feet  and  being  mainly  arid  in  character.  The  Bolivian 
missionary  leaves  the  palms  and  banana  groves  of  the  lowlands 
and  passes  upward  through  forests  of  cactus  and  trees  to  the 
zones  of  pines,  junipers  and  beds  of  resinous  moss  a  foot  deep. 
Above  15,000  feet  rise  the  ever  snowy  crests  of  the  Cordilleras, 
with  scarcely  a  vestige  of  life,  save  the  aspiring  condor. 


I08  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

The  Peruvian  ranges  on  their  western  slopes,  which  rise 
abruptly  from  the  Pacific,  are  practically  rainless ;  though  from 
June  to  October  they  are  refreshed  by  thick  mists.  In  the 
interior  its  Tibetan  characteristics  appear,  and  here,  also,  is 
found  the  grandest  scenery  of  the  Andes.  The  Punas,  wretched, 
wind-swept  meadows  affording  scanty  nourishment  to  llamas 
and  alpacas ;  "  the  cold,  cheerless  and  uninhabitable  Despobla- 
dos ;  "  the  closed  valleys  with  climate  and  products  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  and  redolent  with  memories  of  a  marvellous  Inca 
civilization ;  the  thousand  streams  which,  "  forcing  their  way 
over  roaring  cataracts  and  through  the  dark  clefts  of  the 
Andes,"  gladden  Brazilian  plains  with  the  matchless  Amazon ; 
the  many  silver  spires  that  one  sees  in  the  snow-clad  peaks 
piercing  the  azure;  the  eastern,  lower  slopes  of  the  Montaiia, 
"  a  tropical,  wooded  upland  where  the  old  and  decayed  vege- 
tation decks  itself  with  bright  twining  and  parasitic  plants  be- 
fore its  thundering  crash  breaks  the  death-like  stillness  of  the 
primeval  forest ;  "  —  these  are  some  of  the  elements  that  will 
fascinate  the  Peruvian  missionary,  especially  if  he  goes  beyond 
beaten  routes. 

The  Ecuadorian  section  furnishes  the  mountain  climber  his 
paradise.  One  journeying  southward  from  Quito  to  Rio- 
bamba  over  the  narrow  plain  would  pass,  according  to  Bates, 
"  fifty  peaks  on  an  average  as  high  as  Mount  Etna,  three  of 
them  emitting  volumes  of  smoke,  and  all  of  them  crowded  into 
a  space  not  much  greater  than  the  distance  between  London 
and  Dover."  Imagine  a  railroad  journey  of  equal  length  in 
America  —  for  example,  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia, 
or  Trenton,  more  correctly  —  between  such  heaven-piercing 
giants.  One  of  them  is  the  "  silver  bell "  of  Chimborazo, 
nearly  four  miles  high ;  while  another,  "  turned  out  as  if  with 
the  lathe,"  is  Cotopaxi,  "  in  absolute  elevation  without  a  rival 
amongst  the  active  burning  mountains  of  the  Old  World." 
Though  slumbering  now,  it  is,  in  Titus  Coan's  phrase,  "  in  a 
state  of  solemn  and  thoughtful  suspense  " ;  and  when  aroused 
it  belches  forth  fire  from  a  point  nearly  three  miles  higher  than 


SOUTH    AMERICA  IO9 

the  Vesuvian  crater,  with  a  roar  said  to  be  audible  600  miles 
away. 

In  Colombia  the  chain  rapidly  descends  toward  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  Its  parallel  ranges  are  here  intersected  with  cross- 
ridges  "  like  the  rungs  of  a  ladder."  Though  nearing  the  end 
of  their  course,  the  Andes  still  have  power  to  interest.  Te- 
quendama  Falls,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cataracts  of  the 
New  World,  the  romantic  course  of  the  Bogota,  the  increasing 
luxuriance  of  the  tropical  verdure  as  the  traveler  descends  to 
the  northern  valleys,  are  Andean  features  not  sooa  forgotten. 

Some  of  the  practical  hearings  of  the  Andean  system  on 
missionary  geography  and  activities  may  be  alluded  to.  With 
this  volcanic  ridge  come  not  only  the  risk  of  eruptions,  but 
the  more  disturbing  one  of  frequent  earthquakes,  which  occur 
along  the  entire  western  border  of  the  continent.  Moreover, 
sapping  as  the  mountains  do  the  moisture  from  the  Atlantic 
winds,  the  Pacific  slope  will  always  remain  dry  and  probably 
not  be  as  fully  peopled  as  the  eastern  republics.  However,  in 
the  present  undeveloped  condition  of  llanos,  selvas  and  pampas, 
the  Western  republics  are  almost  as  favorable  fields  as  any  on 
the  continent.  It  may  be  that  future  prospectors  will  render 
this  mountain  region  a  thronging  abode  of  men,  if  new  Potosis 
are  discovered,  and  if  it  is  made  as  accessible  everywhere  as 
the  splendid  triumphs  of  civil  engineering  have  made  it  in  a 
few  sections. 

IV.  Habitable  Plains.  —  i.  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco.  —  As 
the  Spa*nish  name  indictates,  these  are  "  plains,"  and  they 
occupy  a  region  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela  almost  as  large 
as  the  New  England  and  Middle  States  plus  Ohio.  While 
they  slope  downward  from  a  height  of  800  feet,  and  are  in 
part  forest,  they  are  generally  very  level  and  sparsely  wooded 
or  else  wholly  devoid  of  trees. 

Reclus  vividly  describes  an  average  llano  scene,  though  for 
a  more  graphic  picture  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  account 
by  a  native,  Don  Ramon  Paez.  The  former  says :  "  In  the 
central  parts  of  the  llanos  where  the  surface  seems  perfectly 


no  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

level,  where  the  line  of  the  horizon  is  broken  by  no  eminence, 
the  firmament  unfolds  its  azure  dome  above  a  silent  sea  of 
herbaceous  growth,  yellowish  and  scorched  during  the  preva- 
lence of  the  dry  trade-winds,  dense  and  verdant  from  the  first 
appearance  of  the  winter  rains.  Although  extremely  rich  in 
different  species,  the  boundless  prairie  seems  to  merge  all  its 
plants  in  the  same  uniform  element.  Except  a  few  objects  close 
at  hand,  a  drooping  flower  by  the  wayside,  some  startled  beast 
or  insect  seeking  the  cover  of  the  herbage,  nothing  stands  out 
distinctly  in  the  vast  circuit  lit  up  by  the  solar  rays.  Nature 
reposes  in  its  strength  and  majesty,  inspiring  with  a  sense  of 
awe  and  sadness  the  solitary  wayfarer  lost  in  the  wilderness. 
Wherever  the  eye  sweeps  the  horizon,  the  details  of  the  land- 
scape are  the  same,  though  its  physiognomy  as  a  whole  changes 
slowly  with  the  hours,  the  shifting  hues  and  shadows." 

2.  Selvas  of  the  Amazon.  —  These  vast  "woodlands,"  ex- 
ceeding in  extent  the  great  Congo  forest  zone  and  almost 
equalling  in  area  all  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, occupy  the  northern  part  of  Brazil  and  extend  slightly 
into  the  adjacent  colonies  and  republics.  The  Matto  Grosso 
—  "  great  woods  "  —  are  a  southeastern  extension  of  the  sel- 
vas. They  are  not  wholly  forest,  however ;  for,  besides  exten- 
sive grassy  spaces  toward  the  Atlantic,  these  selvas  are  trav- 
ersed by  the  Amazon  which  should  be  regarded,  by  reason  of 
its  labyrinth  of  streams,  not  so  much  as  a  single  river,  but 
rather  as  "  an  inland  fresh  water  sea  filled  with  islands." 

As  seen  by  the  Amazon  traveler  there  is  little  visiblt;  except 
a  "  compact  wall  of  forest  trees  interlaced  with  lianas,  over- 
topped by  a  continuous  mass  of  verdure,  the  stems  rising  on 
both  banks  like  a  line  of  palisades  straight  as  reeds,  enveloped 
in  gloom  at  their  base,  expanding  overhead  to  the  light  of  the 
sun."  Bates,  the  Amazon  naturalist,  describes  an  interior  view 
of  the  selvas :  "  With  the  exception  of  a  few  miles  of  road  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  large  towns,  with  difficulty  kept  free  from 
encroachment  of  young  vegetation,  this  forest  is  without  path 
and  impenetrable.    Singular  especially  is  the  tendency  both  of 


SOUTH    AMERICA  III 

plants  and  animals  in  this  world  of  trees,  to  assume  the  char- 
acter of  creepers  and  climbers.  .  .  .  The  flowers  and 
fruits  of  the  forest  trees  are  all  to  be  sought  for  in  the  leafy 
domes  far  above,  where  the  crowns  of  the  trees,  locked  together, 
are  exposed  to  the  light  and  heat.  All  below  is  dark,  musty 
and  cavernlike,  and  neither  flowers  nor  green  herbage  varie- 
gate the  damp  ground."  Some  of  the  trees  are  colossal,  as 
a  ceaba  described  as  covering  a  space  of  six  acres  where  25,000 
persons  might  be  accommodated.  Another  striking  feature  "  of 
Amazonian  arborescence  consists  in  the  great  development  of 
the  outer  walls  sustaining,  but  detached  from  the  stem,  leaving 
an  intervening  space  wide  enough  to  afford  refuge  to  several 
persons." 

3.  The  Gran  Chaco.  —  This  region,  occupying  the  western 
part  of  Paraguay,  northeastern  Argentina  and  the  southern 
border  of  Bolivia,  is  about  the  size  of  Maine  and  California 
combined.  It  is  the  "  great  hunt "  where  multitudes  of  wild 
beasts  attract  the  Indians  who  here  are  safe  from  white  op- 
pression. While  these  plains  are  mainly  arid,  during  the  rainy 
season  when  the  country  is  inundated  they  resemble  a  vast  lake 
interspersed  with  verdant  islands.  Near  the  rivers,  however, 
rich  forests  are  found  and  vegetation  is  luxuriant. 

A  night  scene  on  the  Gran  Chaco  has  been  thus  depicted: 
"  If  the  day  with  all  its  glories  is  so  unspeakably  attractive 
to  the  lover  of  nature,  the  marvellous  nights  of  these  regions 
still  reserve  fresh  and  unanticipated  charms  for  him.  There 
is  nothing  to  compare  with  the  impression  of  serene  repose 
inspired  by  the  sight  of  the  starry  heavens,  especially  in  the 
more  open  meadow  lands.  Our  thoughts  revert  unwittingly 
to  those  indescribable  nights  on  the  silent  deep,  when  the  ves- 
sel is  borne  along  as  by  an  unseen  power  on  the  unruffled 
surface  of  the  waters,  beneath  the  vault  of  a  tropical  sky.  The 
charm  is  heightened  by  the  countless  swarms  of  fireflies  whose 
phosphorescent  lamps  flash  out  and  suddenly  disappear  in  the 
gloom." 

4.  The  Pampas.  —  This  name  is  given  to  extensive  level  dis- 


112  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tricts  in  Peru  covered  with  the  primeval  forests ;  but  it  is  more 
commonly  applied  to  the  immense  grassy,  treeless  plains  of 
Argentine  Republic  which  rise  in  a  series  of  terraces  from  the 
seaboard  to  the  base  of  the  Andes.  They  are  in  one  place  cov- 
ered with  grass  and  absolutely  level,  at  another  brackish 
swamps  appear,  while  toward  the  south  and  west  salt  steppes 
or  Salinas  occur.  Portions  of  the  pampas  are  very  fertile,  but 
stock  raising  is  the  industry  that  engages  most  of  the  region. 

In  "  The  Great  Silver  River,"  Rumbold  writes  thus  of  a 
summer  morning  on  the  pampas:  "  The  young  sun  floods  the 
low  and  perfectly  level  horizon  with  a  flush  of  pink  and  yellow 
light.  The  fiery  disc  emerges  out  of  what  seems  a  sea  of 
verdure,  all  burned  and  brown  though  everything  be  in  reality, 
and  in  its  slanting  rays  the  tip  of  each  blade  of  grass,  the 
giant  thistles  with  their  rose-purple  crowns,  the  graceful  floss- 
like panicles  of  the  pampa  grass,  just  touched  by  the  breeze 
and  all  glittering  with  dew,  undulate  before  the  eye  like  the 
successive  sparkling  lines  that  mark  the  lazy  roll  of  the  deep 
in  the  dawn  of  a  tropical  calm.  In  the  west  the  vapors  of  night 
have  not  entirely  rolled  away,  while  down  in  the  deep  depres- 
sions of  the  ground  and  over  the  reed-fenced  lagunas  a  thin 
blue  mist  still  lingers  and  mingles  deliciously  with  the  various 
subdued  tints  of  brown  and  green  around.  This  tender  tonal- 
ity lasts  but  a  very  short  time,  the  sun  shooting  upward  with 
a  speed  and  force  that  at  once  completely  transforms  the  pic- 
ture; the  scorching  agencies  of  light  revealing  it  in  its  true 
parched  colors  and  reducing  it  to  a  burning  arch  above,  and 
a  scorching  and  featureless  flat  below.  The  fresh,  rippling 
ocean  turns  into  a  weary  wilderness,  staring  up  at  a  breathless, 
pitiless  sky." 

The  moral  effect  of  such  an  environment  on  foreigners,  and 
on  some,  at  least,  of  the  Gauchos,  is  most  striking.  One  of 
them  thus  writes :  "In  the  presence  of  such  an  awe-inspiring 
solitude,  one's  thoughts  are  unconsciously  drawn  to  dwell  upon 
eternity ;  a  deep  and  yet  a  pleasant  sadness  takes  possession 
of  the  thoughtful  mind,  a  feeling  intensified  at  the  going  down 


SOUTH    AMERICA  II3 

of  the  sun;  and  in  the  darkness  of  the  night  merging  in  an 
overpowering  sense  of  helplessness  and  terror.  .  .  .  Men 
are  known  who  for  years  have  toiled  in  the  vain  endeavor  to 
hearken  to  the  whisperings  of  reason  alone,  and  who  have 
smiled  compassionately  on  those  that  spoke  of  a  better  future, 
and  who  yet  at  a  sunset  on  the  pampas  become  so  unnerved 
that  they  are  nearer  to  tears  than  to  scoffs;  nay,  will  listen 
with  devotion  to  the  evening  chimes  announcing  the  Ave 
Maria."  It  is  said  that  this  strange  fascination  of  environ- 
ment often  compels  Europeans,  who  have  returned  home  with 
a  fortune,  to  go  back  again  to  the  hardships  of  the  old  pampa 
life. 

V.  Wastes  AND  Deserts.  —  i.  Patagonian  Desert.  —  Much 
of  the  territory  above  described,  though  not  inhabited,  is  yet 
capable  of  sustaining  a  great  population  when  the  advantage 
or  necessity  for  its  occupation  arises.  Other  sections,  how- 
ever, can  hardly  become  populous.  Most  of  this  area  lies  in 
that  portion  of  the  Argentine  Republic  commonly,  though  not 
justifiably,  known  as  Patagonia.  This  expanse  is  usually 
called  the  Shingle  Desert.  In  favored  sections  coarse  gra'ss 
and  stunted  bushes  and  herbs  are  found ;  but  in  general  it 
deserves  the  Indian  name  of  one  portion  of  it,  "  the  Devil's 
Country,"  since  the  ground  is  strewn  with  rolled  pebbles,  huge 
boulders,  and  is  intersected  with  ridges  of  bare,  sharp-edged 
rock.  Charles  Darwin  calculated  that  these  cover  a  territory 
200  miles  broad  and  600  miles  in  length. 

The  impression  made  by  this  desert  upon  the  mind  of  the 
great  scientist,  he  thus  describes :  "  These  plains  are  pro- 
nounced by  all  to  be  most  wretched  and  useless.  They  are 
characterized  only  by  negative  possessions ;  without  habita- 
tions, without  water,  without  trees,  without  mountains,  they 
support  only  a  few  dwarfed  plants.  Why  then  —  and  the 
case  is  not  peculiar  to  myself  —  have  these  arid  wastes  taken 
so  firm  possession  of  my  mind  ?  Why  have  not  the  still  more 
level,  the  greener  and  more  fertile  pampas,  which  are  service- 
able to  mankind,  produced  an  equal  impression  ?    I  can  scarcely 


114  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

analyze  these  feelings,  but  it  must  be  partly  owing  to  the  free 
scope  given  to  the  imagination.  The  plains  of  Patagonia  are 
boundless,  for  they  are  scarcely  passable  and  hence  unknown. 
They  bear  the  stamp  of  having  lasted  for  ages,  and  there  ap- 
pears no  limit  to  their  duration  through  future  time."  This 
impression  is  even  more  strongly  emphasized  by  a  later  writer 
in  "  Idle  Days  in  Patagonia." 

2.  The  Atacama  Desert.  —  This  is  the  principal  western 
waste  of  South  America,  though  at  various  points  west  of  the 
Andes,  especially  in  Peru,  there  are  barren  reaches.  Lying 
in  Chile's  northwestern  section,  it  rises  in  rocky  plateaux  from 
the  steep  shore  and  is  broken  by  precipitous  mountains.  The 
soil  is  rocky  rather  than  sandy,  and  to-day  has  little  veg- 
etation except  the  hardiest  desert  plants.  By  reason  of  its 
saltpeter  works  and  silver,  however,  its  solitudes  are  sparsely 
peopled. 

3.  Marshes.  —  Some  of  these  are  saline,  notably  one  near 
the  center  of  Argentine  Republic.  The  largest  of  the  fresh- 
water marshes  is  in  southwestern  Brazil,  that  of  Xarayes.  In 
the  rainy  season  this  is  more  properly  a  lagoon  or  lake,  and 
covers  a  district  as  large  as  Maine.  Above  this  temporary 
sea,  stretching  beyond  the  horizon,  rise  thickets  of  tall  herbs 
and  shrubs,  and  some  artificial  mounds,  formerly  used  as  Babel 
towers  by  the  Indians  who  thus  escaped  the  flood.  The  reader 
must  again  be  reminded  that  many  districts  along  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco  are  little  better  than  marshes,  especially  during  the 
floods. 

VI.  South  American  Productions.  —  i.  Minerals  and 
metals,  so  essential  to  the  development  of  new  countries,  exist 
in  considerable  variety  and  abundance.  If  the  El  Dorado  of 
early  voyagers  was  a  myth,  the  gold  of  the  Guianas  is  not, 
nor  the  gold  and  diamonds  of  Brazil,  the  iron,  copper,  lead, 
bismuth  and  other  metals  of  various  sections.  The  nitre  of 
Chile  is  a  national  source  of  wealth ;  while  the  Andes  are  rich 
in  precious  metals,  the  mines  of  Potosi  alone  having  furnished 
the  world  over  $1,500,000,000  worth  of  silver  since  the  Spanish 


SOUTH    AMERICA  II  ^ 

first  took  possession  of  them.    Coal,  though  not  abundant,  nor 
of  high  quahty,  is  nevertheless  a  valuable  asset. 

2.  The  products  of  the  forest  are  a  limitless  source  of  future 
vvrealth,  and  a  present  cause  of  prosperity.  Beautiful  v^oods 
used  by  cabinetmakers  are  found  in  almost  inexhaustible  sup- 
ply ;  a  variety  of  gums  and  wax,  and  the  extensive  tracts  where 
india-rubber  trees  flourish,  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  exports ; 
modern  medicine  could  hardly  exist  without  South  America's 
coca,  which  yields  cocaine,  and  above  all  Peruvian  bark,  which 
Sir  Clements  R.  Markham,  in  1861,  so  shrewdly  and  labo- 
riously stole  from  Peruvian  forests  for  the  benefit  of  fever- 
smitten  humanity. 

3.  Nor  do  the  field  products  fall  short  in  the  inventory  of 
the  continent's  wealth.  Reclus  is  authority  for  the  statement 
that  South  America  has  given  to  the  world  during  the  past 
four  centuries  more  plants  useful  for  alimentary  purposes  than 
any  other  division  of  the  globe.  Witness  the  potato,  now  the 
staple  food  of  so  many  millions ;  manioc  and  yams,  more  in- 
dispensable to  certain  negro  and  West  Indian  populations  of 
Latin  America  than  the  potato  can  ever  be  to  the  Germans 
and  Irish ;  the  tomato,  peanut,  pineapple,  guava,  mate  or  Para- 
guay tea,  tobacco,  etc.  Other  productions  not  indigenous  to 
the  continent,  like  the  banana,  which  was  carried  there  from 
without;  wheat,  the  production  of  which  is  fast  approaching 
that  of  the  States;  and  above  all  coffee,  are  exceedingly  val- 
uable factors  in  southern  life  and  commerce.  Brazil  already 
supplies  more  than  one-half  of  the  world's  coffee  supply. 

4.  Important  as  these  productions  now  are,  the  continent 
is  almost  wholly  virgin  soil  awaiting  the  time  of  her  develop- 
ment. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  writers  on  world- 
politics  like  Professor  Reinsch,  and  practical  men  desiring  to 
better  their  condition  by  emigration,  are  looking  to  South 
America  as  the  theater  of  much  of  the  twentieth  century's 
development. 

VII.  South  American  Races.  —  Without  pausing  to  speak 
of  the  animal  life  of  the  continent,  the  most  characteristic 


Il6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

features  of  which  are  its  many  edentates,  its  gigantic  reptiles, 
and  its  billions  of  birds  of  every  variety  of  color,  attention  is 
called  to  a  few  general  facts  concerning  the  men  found  in  its 
various  sections. 

1.  Dr.  Herhertson's  Summary.  —  "South  America  has,  at 
a  rough  estimate,  thirty-seven  and  a  half  million  inhabitants, 
giving  a  mean  density  of  population  of  five  and  three-tenths 
per  square  mile.  The  coastal  lands,  the  river  valleys,  espe- 
cially the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Plata  basin,  are  the  most  densely 
peopled.  The  inhabitants  of  the  interior  of  the  forest  regions 
and  in  Patagonia  consist  mainly  of  aborigines  of  many  races, 
differing  in  language  more  than  in  racial  characteristics.  The 
natives  of  the  warmer  regions  are  yellower  than  the  brown 
inhabitants  of  the  mountains,  but  all  possess  the  same  dark, 
lank  hair,  and  scantiness  of  beard.  The  Caribs  of  the  lower, 
the  Nu-Aruak  of  the  upper  Amazon,  the  Tupi  between  the 
Amazon  and  Plata,  and  the  Guaykuru  of  the  Paraguay,  the 
Ges  of  eastern  Brazil,  and  the  Patagonians  and  Fuegians  of 
the  south  are  among  the  most  important  of  their  races  east  of 
the  Andes.  The  Araucanians  of  Chile,  the  old  civilized  Qui- 
chua,  who  formed  the  Inca  State  overthrown  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  the  Chibcha  of  Colombia  are  among  the  Andean  tribes. 
The  name  Andes  was  itself  derived  from  the  Antis.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  more  densely  peopled  areas  are  of  European 
and  African  origin,  as  well  as  American.  Pure  whites,  ne- 
groes and  yellow  men  exist,  but  the  majority  are  of  mixed 
race ;  so  that  here,  as  Reclus  has  pointed  out,  men  containing 
the  greatest  number  of  characteristics  of  all  races  can  be  found, 
the  most  typical  average  specimens  of  humanity." 

2.  Their  Social  Condition.  —  Neglecting  the  six  million 
Indians,  a  study  of  the  history  of  the  continent  for  the  past 
seventy  years  reveals  great  progress,  not  only  in  wealth  and 
population,  but  in  education  and  general  advancement.  In 
these  respects  South  America  has  probably  surpassed  many 
European  countries.  This  progression  has  led  some  writers 
to  ask  whether  the  Spanish  tongue  even  may  not  one  day  rival 


SOUTH    AMERICA  II7 

the  English  in  its  world-wide  predominance.  Carrasco,  in  the 
"  Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  de  Geografia  de  Madrid,  1891,"  pre- 
sents strong  reasons  for  believing  that  with  the  present  rate 
of  increase,  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  which  are  mere  varie- 
ties of  the  same  language,  will  be  spoken  by  180,000,000  in 
1920,  —  a  prophecy  not  likely  to  be  fulfilled.  In  many  centers 
of  influence  South  Americans  are  awakening  to  the  conscious- 
ness of  their  high  destiny;  and  with  increasing  immigration 
and  the  growing  desire  to  emulate  North  American  and  Euro- 
pean ideals  there  is  hope  for  a  great  future,  especially  if  im- 
purity, which  is  working  ruin  in  more  than  one  of  the  repub- 
lics, can  be  conquered  by  the  Christian  view  of  marriage  and  of 
the  sanctity  of  the  body. 

3.  Immigration.  —  The  rapidly  increasing  stream  of  Euro- 
pean life  is  bringing  to  the  continent  new  hopes  and  some 
problems  as  well.  Thus  far  newcomers  are  mainly  attracted 
to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  especially  to  the  colonies  and  to  those 
countries  south  of  the  tropics.  With  the  exception  of  Chile, 
the  Pacific  republics  are  not  securing  a  great  number,  though 
the  mines  may  one  day  allure  considerable  populations.  So, 
too,  the  vast  interior  regions,  now  so  largely  pathless,  will  at- 
tract multitudes  when  communication  is  made  easy  by  the 
development  of  railroads  and  a  better  steamer  service.  Six 
factors  must  be  considered  of  special  importance  in  thinking 
of  South  America  as  a  field  for  extensive  immigration. 

Habitable  area  is  the  first  of  these.  In  this  respect  the 
southern  half  of  the  hemisphere  is  vastly  superior  to  the  north- 
ern, as  it  has  practically  no  frozen  region,  while  about  one- 
third  of  North  America  is  covered  with  snow  and  ice  wastes, 
or  with  tundras  of  moss  and  lichen.  Probably  the  part  now 
unoccupied  but  capable  of  ultimately  sustaining  large  popula- 
tions will  be  found  greater  in  South  America  than  in  any  other 
continent  save  Africa  possibly. 

Material  resources  are  as  essential  for  national  develop- 
ment as  mere  habitable  area.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show 
that  these  abound  already,  or  can  be  readily  developed ;  so  that 


Il8  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Professor  Reinsch  places  South  America  beside  China  — 
though  for  different  reasons  —  as  hkely  to  engage  the  atten- 
tion of  economists,  capitaHsts  and  immigrants  in  the  century 
just  dawning. 

Accessibility,  as  already  stated,  is  decidedly  in  South 
America's  favor,  so  far  as  natural  features  are  concerned. 
Yet  at  present  one  must  circumnavigate  a  good  part  of  the 
continent  to  get  to  Rio  from  Lima  or  Quito,  for  instance,  when 
developed  Amazonian  navigation  would  greatly  reduce  the  time 
and  present  expense.  Railways  of  the  near  future  will  supply 
other  important  lacks  now  existing.  Moreover,  if  the  proposed 
railroad  lines  running  from  the  Mediterranean  to  African 
points  like  St.  Louis  or  Monrovia  materialize,  and  good  trans- 
oceanic connections  be  established,  it  will  be  possible  to  reach 
Buenos  Aires  from  Paris  in  eleven  days,  or  a  third  of  the  time 
now  required.  This  would  greatly  stimulate  South  American 
immigration  and  intercommunication. 

But  can  European  and  North  American  immigrants  and 
capitalists  thrive  in  South  American  climates?  This  question 
is  an  important  one  for  the  missionary  also.  While  it  is  true 
that  "  South  America  is  distinguished  from  other  continents 
by  not  having  a  marked  continental  climate,"  it  should  be  re- 
membered that,  unlike  the  United  States,  Canada  and  Europe, 
which  are  almost  wholly  in  the  temperate  zone,  less  than  a 
fourth  of  South  America  lies  in  that  zone  best  adapted  to  the 
development  and  prosperity  of  the  white  races.  Measured  on 
Berghmann's  map  there  are  in  North  America  4,000,000  square 
miles  between  the  isothermals  of  46°  and  68°  Fahrenheit  to 
South  America's  2,000,000  square  miles. 

As  for  prevalent  diseases  encountered  by  missionaries  and 
other  foreigners,  they  are  not  especially  serious  for  a  country 
so  largely  tropical.  Malaria  is  the  commonest  foe  along  the 
coast,  though  the  Amazon  is  not  as  unhealthful  as  one  would 
suppose.  Both  that  region  and  the  northern  seaboard  suffer 
less  severely  from  malarious  diseases  than  the  Congo  and 
coastal  regions  of  Africa.     The  highlands  of  the  western  coast 


SOUTH    AMERICA  IIQ 

are  practically  free  from  such  maladies.  Yellow  fever  along 
the  coast,  except  in  the  far  south,  and  dysentery  are  quite 
common,  but  missionaries  rarely  suffer  from  elephantiasis, 
leprosy,  goitre  and  many  other  illnesses  peculiar  to  the  con- 
tinent. 

Another  factor  influencing  the  flow  of  immigration  is 
the  degree  of  stability  of  government,  safeguarding  or  jeop- 
ardizing life  and  property.  Though  a  continent  of  republics, 
South  America  cannot  boast  of  great  permanence  of  law  and 
order.  Revolutions  are  frequent  in  some  republics,  though  in 
lands  naturally  most  attractive  to  foreigners  society  is  more 
self-restrained.  If,  as  a  distinguished  orator  and  author  as- 
serts, the  indispensable  factors  in  an  ideal  republic  are  three, 
—  fundamentally  the  Christian,  formatively  the  scholar,  and 
conservingly  the  patriot,  —  most  of  these  republics  possess 
only  the  latter  element  of  ideality.  Even  their  patriots  are 
somewhat  fickle  and  lacking  in  the  strength  of  conviction  be- 
gotten by  a  biblical  faith  and  a  cosmopolitan  and  universal 
scheme  of  education.  When  these  two  elements  are  made 
more  prominent,  there  will  be  a  disappearance  of  the  common 
charge  against  southern  republics,  viz.,  that  they  are  such  in 
form  while  in  reality  they  are  oligarchies  or  veiled  despotisms. 
Constant  improvement  is  observable  in  most  of  them,  and 
labor  and  capital  are  feeling  more  safe  on  the  continent  in 
consequence. 

VIII.  Characteristic  Features  of  Different  Coun- 
tries. —  A  few  facts  concerning  each  of  these  countries  are 
given  below,  the  order  being  alphabetical  for  convenience  of 
reference. 

I.  Argentine  Republic,  including  Patagonia.  —  Here  in  more 
than  twenty  times  the  area  of  the  New  England  States  is  a 
population  of  less  than  three  per  square  mile.  With  a  superb 
climate  and  great  possibilities  of  development,  —  only  one  per 
cent,  of  its  cultivatibl'e  area  is  now  occupied,  —  it  promises  to 
become  scarcely  second  to  Brazil.  It  already  surpasses  it  in 
railway  mileage.     Immigrants  generally  find  this  country  best 


I20  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

adapted  to  their  needs.  The  Welsh  agricultural  colony  in 
Eastern  Patagonia  is  a  movement  toward  the  reclamation  of 
that  section. 

2.  Bolivia  equals  in  extent  the  continental  state  of  Texas 
twice  over,  with  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  almost  a  Con- 
necticut besides.  It  is  the  highest  region  of  its  size  in  the 
world,  averaging  more  than  two-and-a-half  miles  above  the 
sea  level.  Lake  Titicaca  also  has  the  world's  record  as  the 
highest  large  body  of  water.  "  Its  lonely  waters  have  no  out- 
let to  the  sea,  but  are  guarded  on  their  southern  shores  by 
gigantic  ruins  of  a  pre-historic  empire  —  palaces,  temples  and 
fortresses  —  silent,  mysterious  monuments  of  a  long-lost  golden 
age."  Bolivia  is  probably  richer  than  any  other  South  Amer- 
ican country  in  minerals.  Its  present  inaccessibility  will  be 
partially  remedied  by  the  railway  from  Antofagasta  on  the 
Pacific  to  La  Paz,  and  by  other  lines  under  contemplation, 
especially  the  international  route  to  the  Argentine  Republic, 
now  being  surveyed.  The  branches  of  the  Madeira,  however, 
offer  the  most  promising  outlet  for  the  future  commerce  of 
Bolivia.  At  present  it  is  probably  the  least  developed  of  South 
American  republics,  and  that  despite  the  fact  that  an  island  in 
Titicaca  was  the  home  of  the  founders  of  the  Inca  Empire  and 
hence  the  seat  of  the  continent's  highest  indigenous  civilization. 

3.  Brazil  must  be  thought  of  as  covering  a  region  almost  as 
large  as  the  United  States  with  Texas  repeated  a  second  time ; 
or  as  being  "  larger  than  European  Russia,  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary  and  France  combined,  and  its  natural  resources  are 
commensurate  with  its  extent."  Ocean  steamers  can  ascend  the 
Amazon  and  its  tributaries  to  the  boundaries  of  Peru,  and 
smaller  ones  can  go  much  farther.  Hitherto  it  has  mainly  at- 
tracted immigrants  belonging  to  the  Latin  races  rather  than 
to  those  of  Northern  Europe.  With  the  excellent  climate  and 
soil  of  its  southern  portion,  and  perhaps  the  most  delightful 
climate  in  the  world  on  the  great  plateau,  Brazil  will  attract 
multitudes.  Her  unparalleled  possibilities  for  river  transporta- 
tion, and  the  8,718  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  not  to  speak 


SOUTH    AMERICA  121 

of  a  still  larger  mileage  constructing  or  under  survey,  may 
make  this  republic  a  formidable  rival  during  the  coming 
century. 

4.  Chile  would  be  little  more  than  covered  were  Montana 
and  the  two  Dakotas  torn  into  strips  from  seventy  to  250  miles 
wide  and  stretched  from  north  to  south  for  a  distance  as  great 
as  from  Portland,  Me.,  to  San  Francisco,  which  is  the  ap- 
proximate length  of  this  republic.  An  unbroken  mountain 
wall,  varying  from  6,000  feet  in  average  height  in  the  south 
to  15,000  feet  in  the  north,  shuts  off  this  prosperous  and 
wealthy  country  from  easy  communication  with  the  interior. 
However,  less  than  fifty  miles  of  the  Trans-Andine  railway 
are  now  lacking,  and  hence  this  limitation  will  soon  be  re- 
moved. At  present  the  journey  over  the  Andes  from  Santiago 
to  Buenos  Ayres  requires  only  three  days  and  a  half.  Its  in- 
habitants of  the  upper  class  have  kept  themselves  more  purely 
Spanish  than  in  any  South  American  country.  Immigration  is 
not  very  marked ;  yet  with  the  good  financial  standing  of  the 
country,  its  cool  climate  and  its  spirit  of  progress  in  various 
directions,  it  presents  great  attractions  to  the  immigrant. 

5.  Colombia  —  almost  equaling  Texas,  Wyoming  and  Mon- 
tana combined  —  in  proportion  to  its  area  has  more  forest  land 
than  any  other  South  American  republic.  Its  emerald  mines 
are  the  richest  yet  discovered  and  furnish  nearly  all  of  the 
world's  supply.  While  the  coast  and  river  valleys  are  hot  and 
tropical  in  their  products,  the  more  populous  part  of  the  coun- 
try is  elevated  with  a  climate  like  perpetual  spring  and  with 
the  environment  of  temperate  regions.  Unfortunately  the  lack 
of  railways,  —  there  were  less  than  400  miles  in  1898,  —  the 
practical  absence  of  roads,  the  neglect  of  education  and  the 
frequency  of  civil  wars  have  greatly  retarded  the  country's 
development. 

6.  Ecuador  is  about  as  large  as  Germany,  or  the  New  Eng- 
land States  plus  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  Professor  Orton 
says  of  this  country,  "  Nowhere  on  the  face  of  the  earth  is 
there  such  a  grand  assemblage  of  mountains.     Twenty-two 


122  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

summits  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  fifty  are  over 
10,000  feet  high."  Here,  too,  is  South  America's  center  of 
volcanic  activity.  "  To  the  antiquary  it  is  a  region  very  inter- 
esting from  the  remains  of  a  past  indigenous  civilization.  Rich 
in  all  the  varied  products  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones, 
it  is  a  country  of  magnificent  future  possibilities,  but  needing 
population  for  its  development."  At  present  conditions  are  not 
very  favorable  for  immigration,  though  they  are  improving 
very  rapidly. 

7.  The  Falklands  and  South  Georgia.  —  The  Falklands,  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain  and  lying  340  miles  east  of  Magellan 
Strait,  are  nearly  the  size  of  New  Jersey  with  a  population  of 
slightly  more  than  2,000.  It  is  a  region  of  fogs  and  mists  in 
spring  and  autumn,  but  it  is  favorable  for  sheep-raising,  the 
leading  industry.  Penguins  are  numerous  enough  to  give  the 
governor  the  sobriquet  of  "  King  of  the  Penguins."  So  vio- 
lent at  times  are  the  winds  that  they  "  uproot  and  scatter  like 
straw  the  very  cabbages  grown  in  the  kitchen  gardens  of  the 
settlers."  South  Georgia,  800  miles  farther  eastward,  is  un- 
inhabited and  only  occasionally  visited  by  sailors  and  fisher- 
men. 

8.  The  three  Guianas  are  the  only  European  colonies  on  the 
continent  and  are  almost  as  large  as  Wyoming  and  Colorado 
combined.  The  Atlantic  coast  lands  are  low  and  in  some  parts 
high  tides  would  flood  the  country  for  ten  miles  or  more  in- 
land, were  they  not  held  back  by  artificial  sea-walls,  built  to 
make  available  this  richest  of  soils.  It  is  "  a  region  of  dense 
forests,  heavy  rains  and  immense  heat,"  and  while  unhealthful, 
it  is  not  peculiarly  so  except  in  French  Guiana.  The  latter, 
commonly  called  Cayenne,  is  unlike  the  other  two  colonies  in 
that  it  has  elevated  lands  along  the  shore  and  several  rocky 
islands  off  the  coast.  Though  it  has  gained  a  bad  name  from 
its  being  used  as  a  penal  settlement,  "  it  has  all  the  capabilities 
of  the  other  Guianas  and  could  be  developed  with  advantage." 
It  is  the  only  country  in  South  America  untouched  by  Prot- 
estant missions,  a  fact  not  so  vital  since  its  total  population 


SOUTH    AMERICA  I23 

was  estimated  in  1895  as  only  35,065.  Dutch  Guiana,  it  may 
be  remembered,  was  the  purchase  price  paid  by  the  Enghsh  to 
the  Dutch  in  1667  for  New  York  City,  then  New  Amsterdam. 

9.  Paraguay  is  larger  than  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  combined.  This  is  the  home  of  the 
mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  which  is  in  general  use  throughout 
most  of  South  America.  It  is  also  the  scene  of  the  memorable 
experiment  of  the  Jesuits,  to  whom  in  the  seventeenth  century 
was  entrusted  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  administration  of  the 
country.  Their  interesting  plans  were  practically  overthrown 
upon  their  expulsion  in  1768.  "  The  country  is  so  highly  fa- 
vored by  nature  and  its  innate  resources  are  so  great  that  when 
for  some  twenty-six  years  it  remained  under  the  remarkable 
tyranny  of  the  dictator.  Dr.  Francia,  and  was  prohibited  from 
holding  intercourse  with  other  nations,  it  was  not  only  self- 
supporting,  but  actually  accumulated  wealth."  The  two  domi- 
nations above  named  have  attracted  world-wide  attention. 

ID.  Peru,  roughly  speaking,  could  nearly  cover  the  states 
lying  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Its  mineral  wealth  is 
proverbial,  though  in  output  it  is  surpassed  by  Bolivia  and 
Chile.  Peru's  once  famous  guano  deposits  are  now  nearly 
exhausted.  Its  history,  made  attractive  by  Prescott  and  others, 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  interesting  records  of  the  New 
World.  It  is  estimated  that  fifty-seven  per  cent,  of  Peru's 
present  population  consists  of  the  descendants  of  this  marvel- 
lous Inca  race. 

11.  Uruguay  is  South  America's  smallest  republic,  being  no 
larger  than  the  New  England  States  and  Maryland.  Stock 
raising  is  its  principal  industry,  and  for  that  the  land  is  espe- 
cially adapted.  In  general  it  offers  to  immigrants  the  same 
inducements  as  Argentina.  Extensive  national  and  depart- 
mental roads;  more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  railway,  an  active 
commerce  and  a  delightful  climate  are  doing  much  for  Uru- 
guay's development,  which,  however,  is  somewhat  retarded  by 
its  government,  described  as  "  a  sham  constitutionalism." 

12.  Venezuela  is  larger  than  France  and  Germany  taken  to- 


124  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

gether,  and  about  equals  our  Gulf  States,  plus  Kentucky,  Ar- 
kansas and  Tennessee.  It  contains  Maracaybo,  the  largest 
lake  —  so-called  —  in  the  northern  part  of  the  continent.  Its 
basin  and  the  coasts  are  among  the  hottest  regions  of  South 
America.  Venezuela's  vast  tracts  of  unutilized  lands,  and  the 
prevalence  of  the  cattle-breeding  industry,  remind  one  of  Co- 
lombia. International  friction  with  Great  Britain  and  more 
recently  with  the  United  States  is  a  disturbing  element  threat- 
ening her  prosperity. 


PART   II.  — MISSIONARY 

I.  Features  Common  to  Mission  Work  in  all  the  Re- 
publics. —  Omitting  for  the  present  the  three  European  col- 
onies of  the  northern  coast,  some  characteristics  of  mission- 
ary effort  in  all  the  republics  may  be  mentioned. 

I.  Everywhere  we  find  either  an  ignorant  or  a  thought- 
less multitude  following  blindly  in  the  footsteps  of  their 
fathers  who  inherited  from  their  ancestors  a  form  of  Chris- 
tianity without  its  power.  Evidences  of  religiosity  are  to  be 
found  on  every  hand.  One  notes  on  street  corners  such 
names  as  Christ,  Rosary,  The  Cross  and  Regeneration.  Over 
the  door  of  a  school  is  seen  "Pedagogical  Home,  Jesus," 
while  its  director  may  be  John  of  God.  A  gold  mine  is 
named  Jesus  Crucified ;  the  men  met  were  christened  Jesus 
Maria,  Cross,  Angel,  Celestial,  and  women  glory  in  the  no 
less  pious  names  of  Jesus,  Grief,  Conception  and  Mary  of  the 
Saints.  Even  the  theater  presents  such  plays  as  "  The  Face 
of  God."  Cathedrals  of  every  degree  of  magnificence  and 
churches  of  all  grades  of  squalor  or  decay  thrust  themselves 
upon  the  traveler's  notice.  Feasts,  fasts,  saints'  days  and 
the  accompanying  dissipation  are  not  only  marked  features 
of  the  religious  life,  but  they  are  also  economical  factors  pre- 
senting grave  difficulties.  Thus  the  English  manager  of  a 
coffee  estate  in  Brazil  gave  up  his  work  in  despair  for  the 


SOUTH    AMERICA  12$ 

reason  that  because  of  these  interruptions  he  could  not  count 
on  an  average  of  more  than  200  days'  work  a  year  from  each 
employee,  and  it  was  impossible  to  manage  a  plantation  suc- 
cessfully on  such  a  basis. 

2.  Over  against  this  popular  devotion  to  religion,  formal 
though  it  be,  must  be  placed  a  minority,  —  very  small  in 
the  Inca  countries,  but  in  lands  more  open  to  contact  with 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Teutonic  influences  quite  numerous,  —  who 
have  become  alienated  from  their  ancestral  faith,  and  are 
now  either  opposed  to  the  Church,  or  else  are  the  advocates 
of  liberalism  in  some  form,  often  as  staunch  Positivists.  •  In 
most  of  the  countries  this  minority  has  become  so  influential 
that,  while  Catholicism  remains  the  ^state  religion,  modified 
freedom  is  allowed  to  other  forms  of  worship  or  belief.  In 
the  La  Plata  countries  and  Brazil,  Protestantism  has  the  great- 
est nominal  freedom  to  do  its  work.  Venezuela,  Colombia 
and  Peru  are  in  form  least  open  to  missionary  effort,  though 
Bolivia  and  Ecuador  are  in  reality  as  difficult  fields  for 
Protestant  workers. 

3.  Helpful  Factors.  —  In  all  the  republics  education  and 
religious  literature  are  important  pioneers  in  ushering  in  the 
larger  liberty  of  Protestantism.  Multitudes  who  have  not  the 
courage  to  openly  listen  to  the  missionary's  message  or  to  seek 
it  as  did  Nicodemus,  will  secretly  buy  a  Testament  or  receive  a 
tract  from  a  friend.  So,  too,  all  are  sufficiently  interested  in 
education  to  admire  the  work  of  mission  schools,  even  if  they 
do  not  allow  their  children  to  attend  them.  A  scarcely  less 
helpful  auxiliary  in  the  work  is  the  Christian  substratum  which 
is  everywhere  found.  The  fundamental  truths  relating  to 
God's  fatherhood  and  human  accountability  to  Him  are  pres- 
ent, even  though  they  may  be  obscured  by  the  nearer  and 
more  immediate  teachings  of  Rome  concerning  the  mediator- 
ship  of  the  saints  and  especially  of  Mary. 

4.  No  less  omnipresent  are  the  practical  fruits  of  a  formal 
religion.  In  many  cases  the  last  vestige  of  holiness  and  the 
life    hid    with    Christ    in    God    have    disappeared.     Morality 


126  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  religion  do  not  often  coexist.  Even  the  priesthood  is 
corrupt,  as  witness  this  extract  from  an  Encyclical  Letter  ad- 
dressed by  Pope  Leo  to  the  clergy  of  Chile  in  1897:  "In 
every  diocese  ecclesiastics  break  all  bounds  and  deliver  them- 
selves up  to  manifold  forms  of  sensuality,  and  no  voice  is  lifted 
up  to  imperiously  summon  pastors  to  their  duties.  The  cler- 
ical press  casts  aside  all  sense  of  decency  and  loyalty  in  its 
attacks  on  those  who  differ,  and  lacks  controlling  authority 
to  bring  it  to  its  proper  use.  There  is  assassination  and  cal- 
umny, the  civil  laws  are  defied,  bread  is  denied  to  the  en- 
emies of  the  Church,  and  there  is  no  one  to  interpose.  .  .  . 
It  is  sad  to  reflect  that  prelates,  priests  and  other  clergy  are 
never  to  be  found  doing  service  among  the  poor ;  they  are 
never  in  the  hospital  or  lazar  house ;  never  in  the  orphan  asy- 
lum or  hospice,  in  the  dwellings  of  the  afflicted  or  distressed, 
or  engaged  in  works  of  beneficence,  aiding  primary  instruction 
or  found  in  refuges  and  prisons.  ...  As  a  rule  they  are 
ever  absent  where  human  misery  exists,  unless  paid  as  chap- 
lains or  a  fee  is  given.  On  the  other  hand,  you  [the  clergy] 
are  always  to  be  found  in  the  houses  of  the  rich,  or  wherever 
gluttony  may  be  indulged  in,  wherever  the  choicest  wines  may 
be  freely  obtained." 

5.  Protestant  missionary  methods  are  much  the  same  in 
all  parts  of  the  continent.  Those  primarily  labored  for  are 
in  most  cases  Spanish  or  Portuguese-speaking  populations,  the 
aborigines  being  only  incidentally  considered.  Exceptions  to 
this  general  practice  will  be  noted  later.  More  emphasis  is 
laid  upon  the  Bible  than  in  most  missionary  lands,  for  the 
manifest  reason  that  what  South  America  needs  more  than 
anything  else  is,  not  a  knowledge  of  Christianity,  but  rather 
of  that  faith  and  life  in  their  primitive  biblical  form.  Chris- 
tian education  is  also  made  prominent  in  contrast  to  the  ec- 
clesiastical or  state  system,  in  which  the  development  of  moral 
character  is  too  often  left  out  of  the  account.  In  its  highest 
forms  this  education  also  has  as  a  leading  aim  the  raising  up 
of  those  who  are  to  aid  in  South  America's  regeneration,  either 


SOUTH    AMERICA  127^ 

as  religious  leaders,  or  as  the  dominant  factor  in  evangelical 
Christian  homes.  Affecting  the  higher  life  of  these  republics 
is  a  further  object  aimed  at  in  most  parts  of  the  continent. 
Reforms  of  various  sorts  are  to  be  agitated,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose the  press  is  freely  used  by  many  effective  Protestant 
writers. 

II.  The  Work  in  Different  Sections.  —  A  glimpse,  at 
least,  of  Protestant  effort  in  the  countries  occupied  by  the 
missionaries  must  be  taken,  in  order  to  realize  the  importance 
and  extent  of  these  labors. 

1.  The  societies  engaged  in  the  work  are  American  prin- 
cipally, though  besides  over  a  score  from  the  United  States 
and  Canada  there  are  eight  from  Great  Britain  and  one  from 
the  Continent,  together  with  the  Moravians,  the  Salvation 
Army,  two  Wesleyan  bodies  of  the  West  Indies  and  two  Ang- 
lican organizations  in  the  Guianas.  Details  as  to  their  work 
may  be  found  in  Volume  II. 

2.  If  we  begin  with  the  Guianas  and  pass  round  the  con- 
tinent in  the  direction  of  the  hands  of  a  clock,  we  shall  follow 
approximately  the  order  of  Protestant  missions  as  the  gospel 
has  passed  from  land  to  land.  At  present  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  and  two  allied 
Anglican  societies  are  doing  most  of  the  work  in  British 
Guiana,  the  Moravians  being  found  at  only  three  stations. 
Seven  other  societies  are  also  here,  and  in  addition  the  Con- 
gregational Union,  having  in  charge  the  work  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  which  is  no  longer  carried  on  from  Lon- 
don, though  it  still  has  one  man  here. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  missionary  effort  here  is  found 
in  the  attempt  to  reach  the  Hindus,  who  constitute  nearly  forty 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  and  the  Chinese  who  num- 
ber almost  4,000.  The  latter  have  nearly  all  been  converted 
to  Christianity  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Church  of 
England.  Many  of  their  number  are  prominent  merchants 
and  others  are  thrifty  shopkeepers ;  hence  they  have  been  able 
to   build   their   own   churches    and    support   their   catechists. 


128  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

"  Even  the  press,  which  is  singularly  adverse  to  missionary 
effort,  speaks  well  of  them,"  while  missionaries  in  China  tes- 
tify to  the  consistent,  faithful  living  of  the  returned  emigrants. 
The  Hindus,  eighty  per  cent,  of  whom  are  adherents  of  Hin- 
duism and  the  remainder  Mohammedans  of  strongly  proselyt- 
ing tendencies,  are  far  less  susceptible  to  missionary  influence. 
Notwithstanding  the  energetic  efforts  of  various  religious 
bodies,  probably  not  more  than  two  per  cent,  of  these  im- 
migrants have  become  Christians.  The  negro  portion  of  the 
population  has  also  become  evangelized.  Except  for  incre- 
ments derived  from  immigration  the  negroes  are  diminishing 
in  number.  They  are  a  somewhat  influential  factor  in  the 
colony,  some  of  them  gracing  the  learned  professions.  A 
large  work  is  also  being  done  for  the  aboriginal  Indians.  All 
the  principal  rivers  have  mission  stations  on  their  banks  and 
only  a  lack  of  missionaries  and  funds  prevents  the  completion 
of  the  work.  Canon  Josa  says  of  them :  "  In  the  opinion  of 
many  the  Indians  are  doomed.  Civilization  seems  to  be  the 
enemy  of  the  native  tribes,  and  the  recent  discovery  of  gold 
will  prove  fatal  to  the  aborigines.  Christianity  is  doing  all  it 
can ;  but  so  long  as  Christians  are  greedy  of  filthy  lucre,  we 
shall  see  the  sad  spectacle  of  one  Christian  offering  the  gospel 
to  save  the  native's  soul  and  another  offering  rum  to  destroy 
his  body." 

3.  Nearly  all  of  the  work  in  Dutch  Guiana  (Surinam) 
is  carried  on  by  the  Moravian  society,  which  "  seeks  to 
evangelize  Indians,  negroes  and  coolies  from  India  and  from 
China.  The  first  are  the  feeble  remnants  of  Carib  and  Ara- 
wak  tribes  of  practically  no  significance  to-day,  having  been 
supplanted  by  the  more  vigorous  Africans.  The  third  and 
fourth  have  entered  into  the  life  of  Surinam  only  since  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  1863,  being  imported  as  laborers 
on  the  plantations."  In  no  other  mission  field  save  the  West 
Indies  does  this  heroic  society  have  so  many  communicants, 
and  this  despite  the  fact  that  from  first  to  last  the  climate  has 
been    deadly    and    the    obstacles    seemingly    insurmountable. 


SOUTH    AMERICA  I2g 

Bush  negroes,  descendants  of  runaway  slaves  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  who  found  a  safe  asylum  in  the  pestilential 
swamps  of  "  the  land  of  death,"  are  the  especial  care  of  the 
missionaries.  The  present-day  slavery  to  ancestral  worship, 
reverence  for  a  tribal  mother  who  came  from  Africa  and 
planted  sacred  trees  in  the  forest  swamps,  devotion  to  a  mul- 
titude of  mighty  spirits  to  whom  the  Great  God  delegated  his 
powers  when  he  withdrew  from  the  visible  world,  and  servi- 
tude to  dreaded  sorcerers,  have  left  these  poor  people  in  direst 
need  of  the  salvation  so  faithfully  preached  by  the  consecrated 
missionary.  Turning  from  these  to  the  negroes  who  live 
in  the  settlements  and  towns,  we  find  a  body  of  church  at- 
tendants some  28,000  strong,  who  have  been  won  by  the  Mo- 
ravians. A  normal  school  in  which  are  trained  native  evangel- 
ists, whose  use  the  unhealthful  climate  makes  imperative,  and 
their  seminary  on  one  of  the  islands  of  Antigua  where  others 
of  African  blood  are  being  raised  up  to  take  the  place  of  the 
white  missionaries,  are  hopeful  elements  in  Surinam's  future. 
Work  for  Indians  is  not  so  promising,  though  efforts  in  their 
behalf  have  been  long  continued  and  made  glorious  the  mem- 
ory of  such  successors  of  the  Apostles  as  Schumann  and 
Dahne.  Their  nomadic  tendencies  having  proven  ineradic- 
able, no  missionary  efforts  of  a  formal  kind  are  now  being 
carried  on. 

4.  Passing  by  French  Guiana  where  no  Protestant  mis- 
sionary society  is  laboring,  we  reach  the  United  States  of 
Brazil,  occupying  nearly  half  of  South  America's  entire  area 
and  possessing  about  thirty-eight  per  cent,  of  its  population. 
In  addition  to  some  work  done  for  foreigners  by  other 
churches,  thirteen  missionary  societies  are  established  in  this 
republic.  Ten  of  them  are  from  North  America,  two  from 
Great  Britain,  and  one  is  an  international  society  with  head- 
quarters in  Canada.  The  reader  should  remember,  when  no- 
ticing the  location  of  mission  stations  along  the  coast,  what 
Professor  Keane  has  written :  "  The  three  great  inland  States 
of  Amazonas,  Goyaz  and  Matto  Grosso,  with  an  area  of  over 


130  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

1,500,000  square  miles,  have  a  collective  population  of  less 
than  640,000;  whereas  the  twelve  more  important  Atlantic 
States,  with  an  area  of  less  than  1,310,000  square  miles,  have  a 
population  of  nearly  13,500,000,  while  the  little  Federal  Dis- 
trict, a  few  hundred  square  miles  in  extent,  has  three  times 
more  inhabitants  than  the  vast  province  of  Amazonas,  which 
is  more  than  one-sixth  the  size  of  Europe." 

Four  items  connected  with  Protestant  effort  in  Brazil  are 
worthy  of  special  mention.  The  first  of  these  is  the  large 
number  of  workers  among  the  Protestant  foreign  residents. 
Senor  Castells  stated  at  the  Ecumenical  Conference  that  they 
numbered  120  for  the  140,000  residing  in  the  republic,  where- 
as only  about  half  as  many  missionaries  were  laboring  among 
a  hundred  times  as  many  Brazilian  Romanists  and  heathen. 
While  this  emphasis  of  work  by  Protestants  for  their  com- 
patriots is  characteristic  of  most  South  American  countries,  it 
is  especially  noticeable  here,  and  is  an  exceedingly  important 
aid  in  the  Protestant  movement,  both  for  the  sake  of  those 
directly  benefited  and  also  because  it  removes  stumbling- 
blocks  from  the  way  of  those  who  would  otherwise  argue 
against  Protestantism  from  the  lives  of  its  unworthy  profes- 
sors. 

Education  is  likewise  emphasized  in  Brazil.  The  foremost 
Protestant  institution  on  the  continent  is  Mackenzie  College 
of  the  Presbyterians,  located  at  Sao  Paulo.  In  1900,  at  the 
end  of  its  twenty-ninth  year,  it  could  report  an  enrollment  of 
546,  of  whom  seventy-one  were  in  the  college  department ; 
while  during  the  preceding  fourteen  years  it  had  educated 
6,077  students  and  pupils  of  both  sexes.  To  show  its  cos- 
mopolitan character,  there  were  in  the  institution  during  the 
year  reported  339  Brazilians,  48  Germans,  38  Italians,  18 
Americans,  14  French,  12  English  and  17  of  other  nation- 
alities. Religiously  considered,  427  were  Romanists,  117 
were  Protestants,  and  2  were  Hebrews.  Notwithstanding  the 
overwhelming  proportion  of  Catholics,  the  Protestant  charac- 
ter of  the  institution  is  always  emphasized,  thus  showing  the 


SOUTH    AMERICA  I3I 

hold  that  the  College  has  on  popular  esteem.  Other  smaller 
institutions  of  higher  learning  have  done  admirable  work  in 
spite  of  priestly  anathemas,  which  usually  prove  that  they 
are  the  most  effective  form  of  advertisement  by  filling  these 
schools. 

The  most  fully  organized  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion of  the  continent  is  likewise  found  in  Brazil,  though  a  be- 
ginning has  been  made  in  Buenos  Aires  also.  A  fine  building 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  its  energetic  secretary  have  made  it  an 
agency  of  so  great  good,  that  it  has  the  hearty  support  of  the 
missionaries  and  has  produced  so  powerful  an  effect  that  the 
Catholic  community  has  been  provoked  to  organize  a  young 
men's  society  in  imitation  of  this  one.  In  other  cities  of  the 
republic  Association  work  has  been  initiated  in  a  modest  way. 

Although  the  Indians  of  Brazil  are  supposed  to  number  800,- 
000,  of  whom  500,000  are  partly  civilized,  Protestant  missions 
have  done  little  for  them.  While  they  occupy  just  about  half 
the  republic's  territory,  they  are  concentrated  chiefly  along 
the  Amazon  and  about  the  sources  of  its  great  affluents.  Mr. 
Witte,  formerly  of  the  South  American  Evangelical  Mission, 
but  now  laboring  under  the  Presbyterian  Board,  North,  and 
his  former  associate.  Dr.  A.  Graham  Taylor,  have  made  spe- 
cial explorations  with  the  object  of  devising  plans  for  aggres- 
sive work  among  them.  In  a  tentative  report  Mr.  Witte  rec- 
ommends the  establishment  of  reservations  from  which  the 
demoralizing  whiskey  and  rubber  traders  should  be  excluded, 
and  suggests  for  this  purpose  the  regions  south  of  the  Ama- 
zon between  the  Araguaya  and  Madeira  rivers,  or  a  district 
north  of  the  Amazon  between  the  Rio  Negro  and  Rio  Branco. 
On  account  of  the  many  tribes  and  the  small  number  belonging 
to  a  single  tribe,  he  recommends  the  establishment  of  mission- 
ary and  manual  training  schools  for  educating  and  training 
promising  youth  from  the  various  communities.  So  inter- 
ested did  the  governor  of  Para  become,  that  a  few  years  ago 
he  yielded  to  Mr.  Witte's  request  and  induced  the  legislature 
to  pass  a  bill  authorizing  the  establishment  of  three  manual 


132  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

training  institutions  for  Indian  youth,  to  be  modeled  after 
Hampton  Institute  in  the  United  States.  This  bill  provides 
for  each  institute  a  reservation  of  three  square  miles;  builds 
all  necessary  buildings,  including  a  chapel ;  pays  expenses  of 
missionaries  coming  from  Europe,  as  well  as  their  board  and 
a  salary  in  gold ;  and  in  addition  guarantees  to  pay  all  ex- 
penses of  the  schools  for  fifteen  years.  Protestants  would 
be  granted  full  freedom  to  carry  on  religious  work,  and  would 
only  be  required  to  comply  with  certain  educational  conditions. 

5.  Present-day  Protestant  societies  located  in  Paraguay  are 
the  South  American  Missionary  Society  of  England,  and  from 
the  United  States  the  missionary  society  of  the  Northern  Meth- 
odists, first  to  arrive.  The  now  venerable  Thomas  B.  Wood, 
LL.D.,  of  the  latter  Board  pioneered  the  Protestant  enterprise 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  a  work  which  has  great  influence, 
both  from  an  ecclesiastical  and  an  educational  standpoint. 
Hardly  less  helpful  to  the  cause  of  a  higher  life  was  his  suc- 
cessful vindication  of  the  civil  status  of  Protestantism.  The 
struggle,  prolonged  for  weary  months,  "  resulted  in  liberaliz- 
ing the  legislative  provisions  of  the  country,  so  that  without 
sacrifice  of  their  religious  conviction,  Protestants  might  se- 
cure the  sanction  of  the  civil  law  for  the  foundation  of  their 
families  and  homes.  As  a  result  many  of  those  who  had  been 
living  in  virtual  wedlock  without  such  sanction,  set  themselves 
right  before  the  community." 

Another  very  successful  piece  of  missionary  work  done  in 
this  republic,  is  that  for  the  Indians  of  the  Gran  Chaco,  carried 
on  by  the  representatives  of  the  South  American  Missionary 
Society  under  the  able  leadership  of  Mr.  W.  B.  Grubb.  Begin- 
ning in  1888  with  a  presumption  in  their  favor  derived  from 
a  tradition  that  there  should  one  day  come  to  them  men,  not 
Indians  but  like  them,  as  "  guides  in  knowledge  and  a  blessing 
to  their  race,  and  that  great  respect  would  require  to  be  paid 
to  these  people  for  whom  they  looked,"  the  mission  has  gone 
forward  until  it  "  has  been  the  means  of  largely  releasing  the 
Indian  tribes  in  that  extensive  region  from  the  galling  yoke 


SOUTH    AMERICA  I33 

of  dishonest  traders  and  the  desolating  plague  of  intoxicating 
drink,  and  of  introducing  among  them  an  amount  of  social 
happiness  to  which  they  were  previously  strangers."  Spiritual 
results  are  also  beginning  to  appear  after  more  than  a  decade 
of  severe  toil,  the  men  oftentimes  wading  for  miles  waist-deep 
or  else  fainting  beneath  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  not  to 
speak  of  the  dangers  arising  from  a  few  treacherous  natives, 
one  of  whom  almost  killed  Mr.  Grubb. 

As  to  the  prospects  for  missions  among  the  Paraguayans, 
there  is  little  opposition  and  fanaticism  observable,  but  rather 
a  willingness  to  avail  themselves  of  educational  advantages  of- 
fered. The  farmers  also  seem  open  to  the  gospel  and  all 
classes  are  at  an  impressionable  stage  in  their  national  his- 
tory. The  chief  obstacles  encountered  are  impure  and  de- 
grading literature ;  a  Church  presided  over  by  men  who  are 
regarded  as  especially  holy,  but  whose  immoral  lives  disgrace 
the  name  of  Christian ;  and  materialism  and  scepticism,  re- 
sulting from  the  use  of  certain  scientific  text-books  and  equally 
harmful  teachers. 

6.  Uruguay  has  among  the  agencies  which  care  for  immi- 
grants from  other  lands  a  prosperous  branch  of  the  Walden- 
sian  Church,  as  helpful  in  this  republic  as  it  is  to  the  cause 
of  pure  religion  in  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  its  Italian  home. 
Pastors  in  German  and  Swiss  colonies  have  also  cared  for  the 
religious  needs  of  their  countrymen.  Most  of  the  regular 
missionary  work,  however,  is  done  by  the  Methodist  Board, 
North,  with  its  headquarters  in  Montevideo.  Dr.  Thomson, 
in  charge  of  its  Spanish  enterprises,  has  attracted  considerable 
attention  by  frequent  controversial  discourses,  and  by  lectures 
in  the  Atheneum.  A  group  of  six  churches  in  different  parts 
of  the  city  and  a  chain  of  interior  stations  with  their  varied 
ministrations  are  an  earnest  of  larger  usefulness  in  the  future. 
The  problem  facing  Protestantism  in  this  tiniest  of  republics 
is  that  of  aiding  the  religious  life  of  a  population  which  con- 
tains scarcely  any  large  body  of  Indians,  but  is  made  up  of 
Southern  Europeans,  nearly  a  fourth  of  whom  are  recent  ar- 


134  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

rivals.  While  it  is  true  that  in  the  capital  Protestants  num- 
bered in  1896  more  than  12,000  with  25,000  "  not  declared," 
this  only  increases  the  obligation.  Are  these  nominal  Prot- 
estants to  be  neglected  and  thus  give  rise  to  a  colossal  obstacle 
which  threatens  all  missionary  effort  for  Catholics,  even  when 
inconsistent  Protestants  form  an  exceedingly  small  minority? 

7.  In  the  Argentine  Republic  so  large  liberty  is  granted 
to  those  not  of  the  State  religion  that  "  even  the  Jews  are  un- 
molested, and  the  flourishing  agricultural  settlement,  founded 
by  the  late  Baron  Hirsch  as  a  refuge  for  those  driven  from 
Russia  by  the  anti-Semitic  wave  of  persecution,  is  allowed  the 
free  exercise  of  its  religion,  as  well  as  the  enjoyment  of  re- 
ligious instruction  in  its  own  schools.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  this  interesting  philanthropic  experiment  has  so  far  been 
fairly  successful,  and  the  Jewish  settlers  have  here  shown  that 
they  can  be  good  farmers  as  well  as  traders  and  bankers.  In 
1898  the  colony,  founded  in  1891,  had  a  population  of  8,000 
Russian  Jews,  who  had  brought  80,000  acres  under  cultiva- 
tion and  owned  about  15,000  head  of  cattle  and  horses."  It 
must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  Catholicism  is  decadent 
in  Argentina.  On  the  contrary  President  Roca  has  recently 
"  established  relations  with  the  Holy  See  and  has  himself  re- 
ceived a  Nuncio,  along  with  the  knighthood  of  St.  Peter. 
Argentina  is  thus  the  first  Latin-American  nation  which  has 
a  plenipotentiary  at  the  Vatican ;  and  the  Argentine  bishops 
have  this  year  [1900]  returned  from  Rome  laden  with  the 
relics  of  saints  for  their  cathedrals." 

Fourteen  societies  are  found  in  the  republic,  seven  of  them 
from  North  America,  five  from  Great  Britain,  one  from  the 
Continent,  and  one  international  in  character.  The  most 
heroic  of  these  is  the  South  American  Missionary  Society 
whose  labors  for  the  seemingly  hopeless  denizens  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  from  the  death  of  Captain  Gardiner  and  his  six 
associates  in  1851  to  the  present  day,  constitute  one  of  the  most 
interesting  chapters  in  missionary  annals.  Like  the  Danish 
and  Moravian  work  in  antipodal    Greenland,    comparatively 


SOUTH    AMERICA  I35 

small  populations  have  been  found  in  this  bleak  and  stormy 
parish  and  hence  few  have  been  added  to  the  Kingdom  of  God 
from  this  southernmost  mission  field.  Yet  moral  transforma- 
tions have  been  wrought  that  made  Charles  Darwin  a  firm 
believer  in  the  miracle-working  power  of  the  missionary,  as 
well  as  a  financial  supporter  of  the  Mission  until  his  death. 
At  one  of  their  stations  "  the  weather  chronicle  for  one  year 
was  300  days  rain  continuously,  twenty-five  storms,  other 
days  neither  fine  nor  wet."  When  the  Bishop  writes,  "  The 
climate  and  soil  seem  full  of  rheumatism,  so  wringing  wet 
are  they,"  one  realizes  at  how  great  cost  has  been  wrought  out 
that  note  in  the  British  Admiralty  charts,  "  A  great  change 
has  been  effected  in  the  character  of  the  natives  generally,  and 
the  Yahgan  natives  from  Cape  San  Diego  to  Cape  Horn  and 
thence  round  to  Brecknock  Peninsula  can  be  trusted."  Sim- 
ple gospel  testimony  borne  in  loving  lives  of  service,  schools 
and  industrial  farms  and  shops,  have  done  most  of  this  work, 
so  far  as  human  agencies  can  produce  such  changes. 

And  on  the  mainland  with  its  race  of  Patagonian  Anakim, 
the  tallest  in  the  world  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Bo- 
roros  of  Central  Brazil,  this  Society  has  likewise  done  noble 
service.  Thought  its  original  name  was  "  The  Patagonian 
Missionary  Society,"  the  actual  establishment  of  work  there 
was  most  difficult,  partly  owing  to  the  migratory  character  of 
these  Patagonian  Bedouins.  If  the  missionaries  established 
permanent  headquarters,  months  might  elapse  before  a  single 
native  reappeared  again  in  their  neighborhood ;  while  to  ac- 
company them  in  their  wanderings  proved  so  fruitless  that  it 
was  given  up.  The  late  Dr.  Humble  by  his  medical  skill 
among  them,  as  well  as  by  his  devotion  to  evangelistic  work, 
so  lived  that  at  his  death  the  "  Buenos  Ayres  Standard  "  tes- 
tified "  that  there  was  no  more  familiar  name  in  the  far  South, 
nor  one  more  revered  by  Christians  and  Indians  than  his." 
The  great  problem  facing  these  missionaries  to  Patagonians 
and  Fuegians  is  that  of  their  rapid  diminution.  This  is  due 
mainly  to  liquor  left  by  sailing  vessels  and  to  diseases  con- 


136  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tracted  from  their  crews.  Some  years  ago  when  the  Argen- 
tine Repubhc  found  itself  unable  to  subdue  one  of  the  Pata- 
gonian  tribes,  a  concession  of  land  was  granted  to  an  unscru- 
pulous foreigner  who  agreed  to  accomplish  this  result.  He 
planted  large  tracts  with  potatoes  from  which  a  spirit  was 
distilled  and  dispensed  to  the  foredoomed  natives.  So  rapid 
was  the  ruin  wrought  that  in  a  short  time  the  Argentinians 
accomplished  their  object,  and  this  fine  tribe  is  rapidly  dying 
off. 

A  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Argentine  situation  is 
the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  supportng  a  large 
population  in  a  state  of  nature  and  the  delay  in  its  agricultural 
development  until  slavery  had  passed  away,  there  were  few 
Indians  and  negroes  with  whom  the  Europeans  might  amal- 
gamate ;  "  hence  the  European  settlers  have  here  preserved 
their  racial  purity  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  most  other  parts 
of  Latin  America."  As  multitudes  are  flocking  in,  mainly 
from  Southern  Europe,  —  in  the  period  of  twenty- five  years 
ending  in  1899  the  total  number  of  immigrants  exceeded 
2,000,000,  —  "  the  expectations  of  certain  political  economists 
that  the  Anglo-Saxons,  or  at  least  the  Anglo-Teutons,  might 
become  the  controlling  element  in  Argentina  seems  doomed  to 
disappointment."  With  this  probability,  and  with  the  plastic 
nature  of  the  new  arrivals  in  their  favor,  Protestant  Chris- 
tians ought  to  see  the  strategic  character  of  this  republic, 
which  is  destined  to  remain,  as  it  already  is,  the  leading  power 
in  temperate  South  America. 

8.  Chile,  because  of  its  unparalleled  conformation,  —  sev- 
enty miles  broad  on  an  average  and  almost  3,000  miles  long, 
with  eastern  and  western  defences  of  mountain  and  ocean,  — 
"  has  easily  acquired  the  command  of  the  neighboring  seas 
and  thus  become  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  aggressive  pow- 
ers in  the  New  World."  Yet  over  against  these  favoring  con- 
ditions must  be  placed  the  abject  poverty  of  the  laboring  classes 
in  the  agricultural  districts.  According  to  Keane  it  can  scarcely 
be  paralleled  in  the  whole  world,  and  in  many  districts  the 


SOUTH    AMERICA  1 37 

evil  is  intensified  by  over-population,  as  in  Ireland  before  the 
potato  famine.  "  The  families  of  the  oligarchy  have  secured 
for  themselves  the  possession  of  the  whole  land,  and  the  poor 
wretches  hired  by  them  are  really  worse  off  than  slaves,  or 
than  the  Russian  serfs  before  their  emancipation."  Accord- 
ingly the  National  Society  of  Agriculture  reported  that  while 
in  France  there  is  one  emigrant  to  2,000,  in  Germany  one  to 
200,  and  in  England  one  to  113,  in  Chile  there  was  at  that 
time  one  to  every  seventy-six!  Of  the  100,000  foreigners 
now  in  the  republic,  sixty-six  per  cent,  are  from  Peru,  BoUvia 
and  Argentina,  Germany  and  England  coming  next  with  eight 
and  six  per  cent,  respectively. 

Confronting  these  favorable  and  difficult  conditions  are  one 
British  and  five  American  missionary  societies.  The  leading 
ones  are  the  Northern  Methodist  and  Presbyterian  Boards  of 
the  United  States.  In  addition  valuable  work  has  been  done 
by  the  Valparaiso  Bible  Society  and  by  a  Swiss  Missionary 
Society,  which  has  had  workers  among  the  colonists  and  also 
among  the  natives.  The  Methodists,  whose  workers  are  most 
numerous,  have  emphasized  the  plan  of  self-support  from 
the  beginning,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous  mis- 
sions on  the  continent.  The  Presbyterians,  who  fell  heir 
to  the  first  Protestant  missionary  work  in  the  republic,  begun 
by  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  now  operate 
from  six  centers  through  the  ministry  of  education,  the  press 
and  constant  evangelization.  In  1883  the  missionaries  of  this 
Board  established  a  flourishing  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation, the  first  of  importance  on  the  continent.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  chaplaincies  of  the  South  American  Missionary 
Society,  its  representatives  are  doing  a  most  interesting  work 
among  the  descendants  of  the  famous  Araucanians,  or,  as  they 
call  themselves,  the  Mapuches.  This  "  race,  distinguished  by 
its  endurance,  its  valor  and  its  indomitable  character,"  is 
reached  through  two  stations  where  schools,  medical  work 
and  preaching  services  are  carried  on.  The  Canadian  mem- 
bers of  this  Society  have  proven  by  successful  experiments 


138  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

that  the  Indians  have  a  desire  to  learn  farming,  carpentering, 
etc.,  and  Mr.  Sadleir  has  done  some  excellent  translational 
work  also.  Numbering  less  than  50,000,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  Araucanians  will  soon  become  assimilated  with  the 
Chilians. 

9.  The  three  Inca  countries  of  Ecuador,  Peru  and  Bolivia 
are  in  substantially  the  same  condition  so  far  as  regards  mis- 
sionary occupation.  The  work  has  scarcely  begun  and  in  all 
of  the  republics  is  almost  equally  restricted  by  the  Catholic 
authorities ;  so  that  beyond  freedom  of  worship  for  foreign 
residents  there  is  little  liberty  granted  to  the  missionary  except 
to  labor  for  individuals  and  promote  education.  Under  such 
conditions  the  efforts  of  the  Bible  and  tract  colporteurs  are  the 
best  means  for  widely  acquainting  the  people  with  the  Protes- 
tant message.  How  perilous  this  has  been  is  evidenced  by  the 
persecution  of  heroes  like  Penzotti  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety and  by  the  martyr  blood  of  Mongiardino. 

The  societies  having  representatives  here  are  five  from 
America,  one  from  England  and  one  international.  Aside 
from  the  Bible  Society's  agents,  the  Presbyterians  early  began  a 
work  in  Lima's  port,  Callao,  now  given  over  to  the  Methodists. 
What  has  been  accomplished  during  less  than  two  decades  is 
the  occupation  of  a  few  strategic  points  in  all  three  countries. 
In  Peru  there  are  four  spiritual  lighthouses  along  the  coast, 
besides  the  evangelical  illumination  emanating  from  Lima  and 
Cuzco.  Except  at  Lima,  where  the  Methodists  have  a  well 
developed  school  work,  evangelistic  efforts  are  the  main  re- 
liance. Bolivia's  new  capital.  La  Paz,  has  within  it  in  the 
person  of  Canadian  Baptist  missionaries  the  new  leaven  and  at 
Oruro>  they  have  also  made  a  good  beginning.  Ecuador,  by 
recent  changes  in  its  constitution,  has  established  religious 
liberty  and  has  "  sprung  at  once  from  the  most  backward  to 
the  most  advanced  position  among  the  Inca  countries.  In 
1899  the  Government  engaged  the  Methodist  Presiding  Elder 
to  organize  a  system  of  national  normal  schools  with  foreign 
Protestants   as  the  chief  teachers."     The   consecrated   activ- 


SOUTH    AMERICA  1 39 

ities  of  representatives  of  the  Gospel  Missionary  Union  and 
the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  have  been  the  most 
potent  factors  in  the  opening  chapter  of  Ecuador's  evangel- 
ization. Dr.  Wood,  in  summarizing  the  results  thus  far 
achieved,  mentions  the  unexpectedly  high  type  of  spirituality 
found  in  the  few  converts  gained ;  the  stalwart  and  willing 
assistants  who  have  so  soon  been  trained  for  the  Church;  the 
tendency  toward  revival  movements  among  the  English-speak- 
ing element,  which,  after  the  visit  of  Dr.  Harry  Guinness  in 
1897,  had  their  effect  upon  the  Spanish  population  as  well ; 
the  victory  over  legal  restrictions  which  are  constantly  being 
gained ;  and  the  hopeful  beginnings  of  a  movement  that  will 
disenthrall  womanhood  in  these  priest-ridden  countries. 

Much  yet  remains  to  be  done  and  the  obstacles  are  still  very 
serious.  The  Quichuan  survivors  of  the  illustrious  Incan  Em- 
pire number  more  than  half  the  population  and  have  fallen  so 
far  from  their  ancient  estate  that  even  when  Christians,  they 
are  as  devoted  to  the  dragon  as  to  their  favorite  St.  Michael. 
Indian  flagellants  in  religious  processions  lacerate  their  half- 
naked  bodies  with  an  endless  variety  of  self-inflicted  tortures, 
quite  equaling  anything  seen  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  almost 
recalling  the  ceremonies  preceding  the  sanguinary  rites  of  the 
old  Aztec  teocalli.  Their  Christianity  is  further  "  associated 
with  extremely  rude  and  realistic  observances.  Indian  dances 
are  allowed,  at  certain  feasts,  to  be  introduced  after  the  service 
of  the  mass."  In  addition  to  this  moral  debasement,  some  of 
the  tribes  are  ignorant,  notably  the  Chiquitos,  whose  arith- 
metical knowledge  extends  no  farther  than  one,  even  if  it 
includes  that  number,  and  the  Mojos,  who  numerate  no  farther 
than  four  or  five. 

10.  Conditions  are  so  similar  in  Colombia  and  Venesuela 
that  they  may  be  considered  together.  Both  republics  have 
been  opened  comparatively  recently  and  have  been  mainly  in- 
debted to  the  American  Bible  Society  and  the  Presbyterian 
Board,  North,  until  the  later  coming  of  the  Christian  and 
Missionary  Alliance,  the  Venezuela  Mission,  the  West  Indian 


140  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Wesleyans,  the  Plymouth  Brethren  and  the  South  American 
EvangeHcal  Mission.  Colombia  was  entered  by  the  Presby- 
terians in  1856,  and  the  first  Protestant  church  of  six  members 
followed  in  1861. 

Venezuela  was  not  invaded  until  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety's agent  made  arrangements  for  the  sale  of  Scriptures  in 
1876,  though  even  Bible  work  made  no  great  progress  until 
Messrs.  Milne  and  Penzotti  canvassed  the  republic  in  1886. 
An  orphan  from  Spain,  Emilio  Bryant  by  name,  who  came 
to  Caracas  in  1884  with  his  adopted  father,  was  the  pioneer 
whose  firm  stand  for  the  right  and  burning  testimony  brought 
together  the  first  company  of  Venezuelan  believers.  This 
manual  laborer,  feeble  through  consumption  but  mighty  in  the 
Word,  nourished  the  little  flock  behind  closed  doors,  until 
ordained  missionaries  could  organize  them  into  a  church. 
Night-classes  in  English,  French,  bookkeeping,  etc.,  have  been 
the  bait  with  which  not  a  few  have  come  within  the  reach  of 
missionary  influence,  though  these  have  not  been  of  so  great 
permanent  value  as  the  regular  schools  of  the  missions. 
Workers  of  the  Brethren  and  of  the  Christian  and  Missionary 
Alliance  have  been  singularly  constant  and  earnest  in  their 
house-to-house  visitation,  tract  distribution  and  other  forms 
of  evangelical  effort.  Two  Alliance  ladies  are  most  faithful 
in  their  ministrations  at  the  Lepers'  Home,  and  one  of  their 
helpers  has  been  equally  useful  in  preaching  at  the  barracks. 
Miss  Tarbox,  an  independent  worker,  is  very  active  at  the  vil- 
lage of  El  Valle  and  conversions  have  followed. 

Though  this  is  the  day  of  small  things  in  these  two  re- 
publics and  obstacles  are  many,  especially  the  immorality  and 
poverty  of  the  people,  they  strongly  appeal  to  North  Americans 
as  their  near  neighbors.  Outside  of  Asia  there  is  probably  no 
field  where  leper  work  is  so  necessary,  —  Colombia  alone  has 
28,000  of  these  unfortunates,  —  and  other  social  and  moral 
needs  are  even  more  imperative.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  South 
America,  missionaries  should  be  men  and  women  of  more  than 
ordinary  culture,  with  special  knowledge  of  the  history  and 


SOUTH    AMERICA  141 

doctrines  of  Romanism,  and  of  atheism,  spiritualism  and  the- 
osophy  as  well.  Nor  should  the  men  of  holy  daring  and  en- 
durance be  lacking  who  would  be  willing  to  carry  the  gospel 
into  the  lairs  of  Colombia's  150,000  Indians  and  of  Vene- 
zuela's 326,000. 

III.  Political  Complications.  —  The  unstable  political 
conditions  prevalent  in  nearly  all  parts  of  South  America  are  a 
source  of  some  apprehension  to  the  missionaries,  especially  in 
the  northwestern  and  western  republics.  Happily  they  have 
thus  far  resulted  favorably,  even  though  during  periods  of 
revolution  the  work  is  interrupted.  Brazil's  attitude  toward 
Protestantism  shows  what  will  eventually  be  true  all  over  the 
continent,  and  the  recent  advances  in  Ecuador  confirm  this 
judgment.  The  ideas  underlying  a  republic  tend  to  intelligent 
views  with  regard  to  religion,  as  South  America  is  already 
proving.  Missionaries  are  therefore  very  hopeful  as  to 
Protestantism's  future  in  this  neglected  continent. 


VI 

OCEANIA 

PART  I.  —  GENERAL 

The  usage  of  geographers  varies  greatly  with  regard  to  the 
proper  term  for  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  the  pres- 
ent chapter  all  those  are  included  under  the  name  Oceania 
which  lie  east  of  the  Philippines,  New  Guinea,  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  except  such  groups  as  Japan,  the  Kuriles  and 
islands  along  the  American  Continent.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
of  the  great  islands  to  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter.  New 
Zealand  belongs  to  what  will  be  called  Polynesia,  while  New 
Guinea  should  be  included  in  the  Melanesian  section  of 
Oceania.  For  convenience  of  treatment,  however,  the  term 
will  be  used  in  the  sense  stated. 

I.  Oceania  Physically  Considered.  —  i.  Sub-divisions. 
—  From  a  racial  standpoint,  the  most  convenient  line  of 
cleavage  between  these  multitudinous  islands  stretching  over  a 
vast  extent  of  ocean,  is  the  somewhat  old  division  by  which 
the  Brown  races,  or  the  Polynesians  proper,  and  the  Micro- 
nesians  lying  almost  wholly  north  of  the  equator  and  west  of 
i8o°  longitude,  are  differentiated  from  the  Melanesians  or 
islands  of  the  Black  race  lying  almost  wholly  south  of  the 
equator  and  extending  as  far  east  as  and  including  the  Fijis. 
The  first  of  these  divisions,  Polynesia,  extends  as  far  north  as 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  southward  to  the  southern  point 
of  New  Zealand.  To  the  eastward,  this  main  division  extends 
as  far  as  Easter  Island,  while  the  Ellice  Group  lies  on  the  west- 
em  border.  In  area  they  are  as  follows ;  Polynesia  without  New 
142 


OCEANIA  143 

Zealand,  9,312  square  miles;  Micronesia,  1,226  square  miles; 
Melanesia,  48,280  square  miles.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
three  groups  have  a  total  area  of  58,818  square  miles,  which  is 
just  about  the  same  as  that  of  Georgia,  or  of  England  and 
Wales. 

2.  In  physical  formation  they  vary  decidedly.  Mr.  Whit- 
mee  most  clearly  distinguishes  them  as  belonging  to  three 
types  which  are  here  briefly  described. 

The  volcanic  islands  are  almost  wholly  found  on  a  volcanic 
ridge  extending  northwestward  from  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn between  140°  and  150°  W.  to  the  equator  and  New 
Guinea.  In  addition  must  be  mentioned  the  Hawaiian  Archi- 
pelago, a  few  of  the  Carolines  and  the  Marquesas  Islands,  as 
also  the  Bonin  and  Volcano  Islands  near  Japan.  Most  of  these 
islands  are  lofty  in  proportion  to  their  size ;  hence  the  voyager 
perceives  while  at  a  distance  tapering  peaks,  and  when  near 
the  shore  precipitous  spurs  jutting  into  the  sea.  In  many  of 
them,  however,  the  land  slopes  gently  outward  from  the  cen- 
tral ridge  to  the  ocean.  Most  of  these  islands  are  also  sur- 
rounded by  coral  reefs  at  some  distance  from  the  mainland 
where  the  wa<"er  is  shallow ;  otherwise,  they  are  located  not 
far  from  the  shore.  While  in  origin  they  are  volcanic,  very 
few  active  volcanoes  are  now  in  existence. 

The  elevated  coral  islands,  while  a  species  of  the  atoll,  are 
likewise  related  to  those  just  mentioned.  There  are  compar- 
atively few  of  them  in  Oceania.  All  lie  within  or  near  the 
volcanic  ridge.  As  to  origin,  it  is  doubtless  true  that  they 
have  been  thrust  upward  by  subterranean  forces,  and  from 
being  coral  shoals  have  reached  a  considerable  elevation.  The 
Loyalty  Islands  are  a  sample  of  this  formation.  "  On  ap- 
proaching them  one  sees  high  coral  cliffs,  in  appearance  much 
like  the  chalk-cliffs  of  England,  except  that  they  are  often 
some  distance  inland  and  not  close  on  the  shore.  The  Island 
of  Mare  may  be  taken  as  a  good  type  of  the  class.  Here  be- 
tween the  shore  and  the  coral  cliffs,  there  is  a  tract  of  level 
land  varying  from  a  few  yards  to  perhaps  one-quarter  of  a 


144  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

mile  or  more  across.  On  this  level  tract  the  people  mainly 
dwell.  At  the  back  of  this  there  rises  a  perpendicular  wall 
of  coral,  in  some  places  as  much  as  lOO  feet  high.  Still  far- 
ther inland  there  are  two  similar  though  smaller  cliffs  indi- 
cating that  there  were  three  distinct  upheavals." 

The  atolls  differ  decidedly  from  volcanic  islands.  They 
have  been  called  the  Desert  of  the  Sea  because  they  are  with- 
out much  soil,  and  hence  very  sandy  and  far  from  fertile. 
They  lie  north  of  the  two  classes  of  islands  just  mentioned, 
along  the  equator  and  to  its  northward.  The  creation  of  the 
coral  insect,  they  are  formed  by  the  accumulation  of  debris 
washed  on  the  reefs  during  heavy  winds.  "  The  typical  coral 
island  consists  of  the  somewhat  ring-shaped  reef  enclosing  a 
lagoon.  Such  reefs  vary  in  size  from  less  than  a  mile  up  to 
ninety  miles  long  and  may  be  ten  miles  wide,  the  breadth  of 
the  annular  reef  being  on  an  average  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile."  In  most  of  these  islands  the  circle  of  land  is  not  com- 
plete, but  is  broken  in  upon  on  the  leeward  side.  It  should 
be  added  that  no  atolls  are  found  on  the  volcanic  ridge; 
though  elevated  coral  islands  are  occasionally  located  there. 

3.  Scenery.  —  The  late  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  whose 
charming  volume  "  In  the  South  Seas  "  is  in  the  main  excellent 
from  a  scientific  standpoint,  as  well  as  most  graphic,  writes 
thus :  "  No  distinction  is  so  continually  dwelt  upon  in  South 
Sea  talk  as  that  between  the  '  low  '  and  the  '  high  '  island,  and 
there  is  none  more  broadly  marked  in  nature.  The  Him- 
alayas are  not  more  different  from  the  Sahara.  On  the  one 
hand,  and  chiefly  in  groups  of  from  eight  to  a  dozen,  volcanic 
islands  rise  above  the  sea;  few  reach  an  altitude  of  less  than 
4,000  feet;  one  exceeds  13,000  [Mauna  Kea  in  Hawaii,  14,- 
000  feet]  ;  their  tops  are  often  obscured  in  cloud;  they  are  all 
clothed  with  various  forests,  all  abound  in  food,  and  are  all  re- 
markable for  picturesque  and  solemn  scenery.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  the  atoll ;  a  thing  of  problematic  origin  and 
history,  the  reputed  creature  of  an  insect  apparently  uniden- 
tified ;  often  rising  at  its  highest  point  to  less  than  the  stature 


OCEANIA  145 

of  a  man  —  man  himself,  the  rat  and  the  land-crab,  its  chief 
inhabitants ;  not  more  variously  supplied  with  plants ;  and  of- 
fering to  the  eye,  even  when  perfect,  only  a  rim  of  glittering 
beach  and  verdant  foliage,  enclosing  and  enclosed  by  the  blue 
sea."  To  this  description  of  Stevenson  may  be  added  the 
words  of  Dr.  Mill :  "  The  grand  contrast  in  all  low  coral  is- ' 
lands  is  that  of  the  two  beaches,  the  inner  beach  facing  the 
lagoon,  which  is  the  harbor  and  the  site  of  all  houses,  and  the 
outer  beach  on  which  the  ocean  surf  always  thunders,  filling 
the  whole  island  with  its  unceasing  noise ;  and  this  beach  is 
deserted,  shunned  by  the  natives  as  the  haunt  of  the  spirits 
of  the  dead."  A  feature  which  these  writers  have  not  men- 
tioned is  due  to  the  rounding  off  of  sharp  outlines  with  the 
rich  vegetation  found  everywhere  on  the  higher  islands. 
"  The  atmosphere  is  so  laden  with  moisture  that  ferns,  club- 
mosses,  and  even  small  shrubs  grow  upon  the  faces  of  the 
steepest  rocks.  Mainly  on  this  account  the  scenery  can  rarely 
be  said  to  be  grand,  but  nearly  all  these  islands  are  truly  beau- 
tiful. There  is  a  freshness  about  the  vegetation  all  the  year 
round  which  is  rarely  seen  in  other  portions  of  the  world." 
In  the  case  of  the  elevated  coral  islands,  which  are  not  so  well 
provided  with  vegetable  soil  and  hence  less  fertile,  there  is 
less  beauty.  Occasionally  these  groups  suffer  from  drought. 
As  to  the  atolls,  were  it  not  for  the  palm  and  the  screw  pine  and 
less  than  a  hundred  species  of  plants,  perhaps  little  else  would 
be  discernable  save  a  barren  reef.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
missionaries,  however,  new  food-producing  plants  are  being 
grown  and  attempts  are  made  to  prevent  the  suffering  from 
drought,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  atoll.  The  inhabitants 
make  the  most  of  their  barren  environment  by  digging  wide 
trenches,  from  which  the  sand  is  removed  until  they  almost 
reach  the  sea  level.  Into  these  they  put  vegetable  refuse  and 
manure,  and  as  there  is  some  moisture  at  that  level,  these  ex- 
cavated gardens  are  comparatively  fertile, 

4.     The  climate  naturally  varies  little ;  since,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  New  Zealand  and  New  Guinea,  there  are  no  exten- 


146  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

sive  bodies  of  land  to  modify  the  temperature.  The  elevated 
coral  islands  are  very  healthy  for  the  tropics,  being  always 
well-drained  and  having  a  less  dense  vegetation  than  the  vol- 
canic groups.  Mr.  Whitmee  gives  as  an  average  reading  of 
the  thermometer  over  a  large  extent  of  Oceania  about  80°  Fah- 
*renheit,  with  only  a  rare  fall  below  60°.  Owing  to  the  small 
land  areas  and  the  prevalence  of  trade  winds  during  most  of 
the  year,  the  heat  is  always  modified.  Those  groups  lying 
east  of  and  including  Fiji  are  much  more  healthful  than  those 
to  the  west.  In  the  eastern  or  Polynesian  section,  "  fever  and 
ague  are  of  rare  occurrence.  In  the  western  section,  European 
missionaries  do  not  find  it  expedient  to  remain  for  long  pe- 
riods, owing  to  the  weakening  effects  of  frequent  attacks  of 
these  diseases."  The  difficulty  of  which  Occidentals  most 
complain  is  the  absence  of  bracing  winters  to  which  they  have 
become  accustomed.  Continuous  warmth  and  much  moisture 
are  apt  to  be  relaxing  and  difficult  to  endure. 

Aside  from  the  maladies  mentioned  above,  there  are  compar- 
atively few  prevalent  in  any  portion  of  Oceania.  Native  dis- 
eases are  chiefly  those  affecting  the  skin.  Even  foreigners 
are  subject  to  elephantiasis,  which  prevails  more  or  less  on 
the  damp  mountain  islands.  Leprosy,  which  is  prevalent  on 
the  Gilbert  and  Hawaiian  Islands,  is  restricted  to  the  natives. 
European  diseases  that  have  been  introduced  by  sailors  and 
others  work  great  havoc  when  they  are  epidemic ;  not  so  much 
because  measles  and  smallpox,  for  instance,  are  necessarily 
fatal,  but  rather  because  entire  villages  are  attacked  at  once, 
and  being  without  doctors  and  other  medical  care,  and  not  be- 
ing trained  to  guard  themselves,  they  become  victims  in  great 
numbers. 

5.  Physical  calamities  to  which  Oceania  is  exposed  have 
been  very  destructive.  Perhaps  the  greatest  evil  is  that  due 
to  the  wind.  Hurricanes  sweep  over  the  volcanic  ridge  be- 
tween the  months  of  December  and  April,  so  that  some  of  the 
islands  rarely  pass  a  year  without  being  visited  by  a  more  or 
less  destructive  cyclone.     Happily  the  most  serious  hurricanes 


OCEANIA  147 

are  confined  to  the  higher  groups,  though  occasionally  the  low 
atolls  are  visited  by  them.  Earthquakes,  with  the  frequently 
accompanying  great  sea  wave,  and  volcanic  eruptions,  espe- 
cially the  destructive  overflow  of  lava  on  Hawaii,  have  slain 
their  thousands. 

II.  The  Races  of  Oceania.  —  The  inhabitants  of  these 
multitudinous  islands  with  varying  dialects  and  languages  can 
be  classed  as  belonging  to  two  main  races,  while  a  mingling  of 
these  constitutes  what  may  be  called  a  third  race.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  various  main  divisions  is  as  follows :  Micronesia, 
98,507;  Polynesia,  without  New  Zealand,  180,193;  Melanesia, 
596,544.  This  gives  a  total  of  875,244,  with  an  average  density 
per  square  mile  of  15  persons.  Micronesia's  density  is  80  per 
square  mile,  while  Polynesia's  is  19  and  Melanesia's,  12. 

I.  The  first  and  lowest  of  these  is  the  Melanesian,  or  as  it 
was  formerly  called,  the  Papuan.  This  race  is  not  confined 
to  the  islands  of  these  groups,  since  it  extends  farther  west- 
ward and  northward.  In  Oceania  these  peoples  are  included 
in  the  Melanesian  section.  They  are  more  or  less  black  and 
have  frizzly  hair,  just  as  is  the  case  in  New  Guinea  and  to  the 
westward.  The  Melanesian's  lips  are  thick  and  the  jaws  pro- 
ject. They  are  small  in  stature,  though  in  some  islands  of 
fair  height  when  mixed  with  other  races.  They  were  origi- 
nally, and  to  some  extent  still  are,  cannibals,  and  their  women 
hold  a  very  inferior  position,  most  of  the  work  falling  to 
them.  So  low  are  they  in  the  scale  that  the  relations  between 
the  sexes  are  of  the  most  degrading  character.  They  are  a 
noisy  people,  as  easily  pleased  as  offended.  While  the  Fijis  are 
often  considered  as  belonging  to  this  group,  those  islands 
produce  some  of  the  finest  men  in  Polynesia  because  of  the 
admixture  of  Polynesian  blood.  The  Melanesians  are  appar- 
ently the  indigenous  element  in  the  Pacific,  and  probably  oc- 
cupied in  former  times  a  much  wider  territory  than  at  present. 
All  readers  of  Dr.  Paton's  life  will  recall  how  bloodthirsty 
and  treacherous  the  New  Hebrides  branch  of  this  family  is. 
In  some   islands   they  are   divided   into  independent   hostile 


148  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

groups  at  perpetual  feud  with  their  neighbors,  while  in  many 
places  they  are  head-hunters  and  exceedingly  savage  and 
cruel. 

2.  The  Polynesians,  or  as  some  prefer  to  call  them,  the 
Sawaiori  —  a  word  compounded  of  a  syllable  from  the  name  of 
each  of  the  three  leading  islands,  6'amoa,  Hawaii  and  Maon- 
land,  or  New  Zealand  —  are  later  arrivals,  according  to  Profes- 
sor Keane,  who  supports  the  thesis  that  Samoa  was  the  center 
of  their  dispersion.  They  have  affinities  with  the  Malays  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago,  but  the  parent  race  has  apparently  dis- 
appeared, since  there  are  striking  differences  between  the  Poly- 
nesians and  the  Malays  of  the  West.  Physically  they  are  a 
fine  race.  One  of  the  earlier  anthropologists,  De  Quatrefages, 
regards  the  natives  of  Samoa  and  Tonga  as  the  largest  people 
in  the  world,  forgetting  two  tall  South  American  races.  The 
average  height,  which  he  states  as  being  5  feet  and  9.92  inches, 
is  perhaps  a  little  greater  than  later  measurements  would  war- 
rant, however.  When  they  are  young  many  of  the  men  and 
women  are  good-looking,  the  men  paying  greater  attention  to 
their  personal  appearance  and  adornment  than  the  women  even. 
On  the  more  barren  islands,  where  greater  energy  is  demanded, 
they  are  strong,  but  the  enervating  climate  of  the  more  elevated 
groups  has  left  them  with  little  strength.  Like  the  American 
Indian,  they  are  remarkably  fluent  speakers  and  their  addresses 
are  of  the  highest  order.  Akin  to  this  characteristic  is  their 
fondness  for  rank  and  titles,  which  leads  to  the  use  of  honor- 
ifics  in  speech.  Their  women  have  occupied  a  relatively  high 
position,  and  in  some  cases,  before  affected  by  Western  ideas, 
they  assumed  high  titles  and  held  important  offices.  Infanti- 
cide in  some  of  the  islands  was  formerly  prevalent,  though  not 
so  much  owing  to  a  lack  of  feeling  as  to  prevent  over-popula- 
tion. Old  age  was  honored,  and  in  connection  with  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  past  which  was  handed  down  through  the  recital 
of  songs  and  myths,  old  men  exercised  a  strong  influence. 

3.  The  name  of  a  third  race,  found  on  the  Caroline,  Mar- 
shall and  Gilbert  Islands  in  Micronesia,  used  by  Whitmee  and 


OCEANIA  149 

Others,  is  Tarapon.  This  is  likewise  a  compound  word  made 
up  from  the  names  of  two  islands,  Tarawa  and  Ponape.  A 
more  usual  name  is  Micronesian.  These  people  resemble  the 
Polynesians,  but  are  somewhat  smaller  and  less  strong.  They 
are  very  evidently  a  mixed  race  and  are  possibly  the  descend- 
ants of  people  who  in  later  times  migrated  from  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  by  a  Papuan  admixture  of  blood,  with  a  pos- 
sible strain  of  Chinese  and  Japanese,  have  produced  the  pres- 
ent stock.  As  they  are  mainly  atoll  dwellers,  their  canoes  and 
houses  are  inferior  to  those  of  Polynesia.  Woman  occupies 
an  intermediate  position  between  those  of  Melanesia  and  Poly- 
nesia. They  have  been  less  affected  by  missions  and  contact 
with  traders  than  the  Polynesians,  and  hence  are  less  civilized. 
III.  Oceanic  Languages. — Dialects  are  very  numerous, 
and  in  some  cases  where  hostility  between  adjacent  tribes  is 
marked,  many  languages  arie  found  within  a  limited  area. 
Thus,  in  the  New  Hebrides,  which  contain  a  total  area  of  5,300 
square  miles  —  a  little  larger  than  Connecticut  —  with  only 
75,000  inhabitants,  the  difference  between  dialects  is  such  that 
nearly  twenty  Bible  versions  are  desirable,  if  the  people  are  to 
be  most  effectively  reached.  While  this  is  true,  if  one  looks 
beneath  the  surface.  Professor  Keane's  statement  is  encour- 
aging: "Nearly  all  Pacific  languages  appear  to  be  members 
of  the  great  Malayo-Polynesian  family,  which  stretches  across 
two  oceans  from  Madagascar  to  Rapanui  (Easter  Island). 
However  it  is  to  be  explained,  the  fact  is  now  established  that 
both  the  dark  and  brown  peoples  speak  idioms  derived  from  a 
common  stock."  A  reflexion  comforting  to  the  missionary 
who  may  need  to  go  from  island  to  island,  is  derivable  from 
J.  M.  Alexander's  statement :  "  The  forms  of  the  Polynesian 
words  change  by  regular  laws  from  group  to  group ;  so  that  if 
a  word  is  given  in  the  language  of  one  group,  it  can  often  be 
determined  what  it  would  be  in  the  language  of  another. 
These  changes  have  consisted  in  dropping  letters  and  abbrevi- 
ating words,  till  in  Hawaii  only  fourteen  letters  were  needed 
to  spell  all  Hawaiian  words." 


150  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

IV.  The  Old  Religions  of  Oceania.  —  The  island  world 
of  the  Pacific  has  been  so  largely  influenced  by  the  mission- 
ary that  in  most  cases  what  is  said  below  is  no  longer  true  of 
the  inhabitants,  though  there  are  many  groups  or  individual 
islands  where  the  old  heathenism  still  survives. 

1.  As  would  be  expected,  the  Melanesians  lack  those  histor- 
ical traditions,  poems,  and  that  religious  development  which 
mark  their  ocean  neighbors.  Their  religious  systems  were 
little  more  than  forms  of  fetishism.  As  the  missionary  liter- 
ature most  commonly  read,  such  as  Miss  Yonge's  life  of  Bishop 
Patteson  and  the  books  describing  the  Apostolic  labors  of  the 
venerable  Dr.  Paton,  have  to  do  with  the  Melanesians,  as  do 
the  earlier  accounts  of  the  cannibalistic  Fijis,  a  wrong  im- 
pression has  been  created  perhaps,  since  the  other  great  divi- 
sions of  Oceania  are  not  quite  so  low  in  the  religious  scale. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  present  large  number  of  communi- 
cants on  the  Fijis  raises  the  Melanesian  division  statistics 
very  materially,  thus  making  one  forget  the  groups  where 
heathenism  dominates. 

2.  The  Sawaiori,  or  Polynesian  religion  was  originally  poly- 
theistic, though  many  of  their  gods  were  deified  men.  Some 
of  the  deities  were  nature  forces  personified.  Others  were 
human  passions,  according  to  Dr.  Ellis,  but  the  conception 
which  they  had  of  Tongaloa  was  of  a  far  higher  order.  The 
more  intelligent  of  the  Polynesians  regarded  him  as  "  the  first 
and  principal  god,  uncreated  and  existing  from  the  beginning 
or  from  the  time  he  emerged  from  Po,  or  the  world  of  dark- 
ness." In  Samoa  he  was  considered  the  father  of  all  the  gods, 
and  creator  of  all  things.  So  closely  were  men  linked  to  these 
gods  that  in  some  islands  when  the  birth  of  a  child  was  ex- 
pected, the  aid  of  the  gods  of  the  family  was  invoked,  and  the 
one  prayed  to  at  the  instant  of  birth  became  the  infant's  god. 
In  some  of  the  groups,  idols  bearing  more  or  less  resemblance 
to  the  human  form  were  made,  though  theoretically  these  were 
regarded  simply  as  the  dwelling-places  of  the  divine  spirits. 
In  this  connection  one  recalls  the  cyclopean  images  of  the 


OCEANIA  151 

Easter  Islands,  found  also  in  the  Carolines  of  Micronesia. 
Some  of  these  stone  images  on  Easter  Island  measure,  from  the 
top  of  the  head  to  the  collar-bone,  twenty  feet.  No  one  knows 
how  this  gigantic  sculpturing  was  accomplished ;  though,  as 
they  exist  in  connection  with  great  stone  houses,  paved  avenues, 
etc.,  it  may  be  that  they  are  evidences  of  the  work  of  those 
temple  builders  from  India  who  have  left  their  cyclopean  mark 
upon  the  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  A  priesthood, 
hereditary  in  many  cases,  guided  the  people  in  their  worship, 
and  in  the  Society  Islands  at  least,  there  was  a  privileged 
society  known  as  the  Areoi,  a  most  licentious  and  cruel  or- 
ganization. Human  sacrifices  were  common,  and  all  through 
these  groups  the  system  of  tapu  (tabu  or  taboo)  was  connected 
with  their  religious  rites.  This  fearful  system,  which  was  like- 
wise connected  with  royalty,  constituted  the  strongest  chain 
with  which  heathenism  has  ever  bound  a  people.  The  history 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  shows  how  the  overthrow  of  such  a 
domination  immediately  disenthralls  a  people.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  all  of  the  Polynesians  before  their 
conversion  were  strict  in  their  religious  observances,  and  re- 
ligion came  into  almost  every  action  of  life.  They  were,  in 
most  instances  with  comparative  ease  led  to  accept  Christian- 
ity, and  this  characteristic  has  remained. 

3.  The  Tarapon,  or  Micronesian  race,  are  strict  in  the  ob- 
servance of  religious  rites,  and  the  shrines  of  their  gods  are 
very  numerous.  These  are  chiefly  spirits  of  great  men  of 
past  ages,  and  the  mediator  between  these  people  and  the 
deified  heroes  is  the  chief,  who  is  likewise  the  priest.  In  the 
Gilbert  Islands  one  could  see  formerly  in  almost  every  house 
a  small  circle  or  square,  formed  of  pieces  of  coral  or  shells, 
and  in  the  center  a  block  of  coral,  representing  the  household 
deity.  Gods  of  villages  or  districts  were  quite  similar,  and 
offerings  of  food  and  garlands  of  cocoanut  leaves  were  of- 
fered to  them.  The  dead  are  affectionately  remembered,  so 
much  so  that  women  often  carry  the  skulls  of  deceased  children 
suspended  by  a  cord  to  their  neck. 


152  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

V.  Political  and  Economic  Conditions. —  i.  The  future 
of  the  island  world  is  very  largely  in  the  hands  of  Occidental 
races,  as  will  be  seen  from  a  consideration  of  their  ownership. 
The  territory  of  Oceania  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  follow- 
ing Powers,  the  order  being  that  of  the  number  of  inhabitants 
beginning  with  the  lowest :  Chile,  200  inhabitants ;  Japan,  i  ,270 ; 
France,  101,326;  more  or  less  independent,  though  under  a 
European  protectorate  101,450;  United  States,  118,820;  Great 
Britain  263,141 ;  Germany,  289,037.  With  the  exception  of 
Chile's  territory  which  is  only  fifty-five  square  miles,  and 
Japan's,  thirty  square  miles,  the  area  ruled  or  influenced  by 
these  powers  increases  in  every  case.  New  Zealand  is  here 
omitted.  Had  it  and  New  Guinea  been  included  in  this  state- 
ment, areas  would  have  been  different  and  vastly  larger. 

2.  The  jurisdiction  over  these  islands  by  Occidental  na- 
tions is  usually  exercised  in  the  interest  of  the  inhabitants, 
though  complaint  is  constantly  made  against  France,  and 
naturally  there  is  more  or  less  irritation  felt  by  all  the  strongest 
populations  because  of  this  foreign  domination.  Possibly  this 
feeling  is  most  pronounced  in  the  New  Hebrides  and  Santa 
Cruz  Islands,  where  decided  hatred  of  Europeans  exists. 


PART   II.  —  MISSIONARY 

This  division  of  the  world  is  in  some  respects  hardly  to  be 
regarded  as  missionary  ground.  Thus  in  Hawaii,  which  is 
now  part  of  the  United  States,  missionary  operations  much 
resemble  those  included  under  home  missions,  though  large 
Asiatic  populations  are  the  principal  constituency.  As  for  the 
islands  in  general.  Rev.  Joseph  King,  of  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society,  could  say  at  the  Ecumenical  Conference  in  1900, 
that  in  Oceania  the  average  number  of  church  members  to 
the  entire  population  is  the  highest  in  the  world.  There  is 
still  urgent  necessity  for  missions  among  these  islands,  how- 
ever, as  will  appear  below. 


OCEANIA  153 

I.  Points  Common  to  Most  of  the  Groups.  —  i. 
The  methods  employed  by  missionaries  to  bring  these  peo- 
ple into  the  light  differ  somewhat  from  those  emphasized 
in  other  fields.  As  most  of  the  groups  contain  numerous 
islets,  it  has  necessitated  the  occupancy  of  central  islands  as 
headquarters  for  the  white  missionaries,  whence  they  go  out 
on  tours  of  episcopal  visitation  from  time  to  time.  Moreover, 
these  centers  of  religious  life  are  the  places  where  natives  are 
trained  before  scattering  to  their  island  parishes.  More  than 
in  ordinary  fields,  they  have  been  used  to  carry  the  gospel  to 
new  islands  and  groups,  the  missionary  accompanying  them 
and  after  a  brief  stay  leaving  them  to  the  cruel  mercies  of 
strangers,  who  have  in  many  cases  murdered  and  eaten  their 
would-be  benefactors. 

Missionary  ships,  with  steam  as  an  auxiliary  in  recent  years, 
become  an  essential  to  every  successful  South  Sea  mission. 
With  a  succession  of  Daysprings,  Southern  Crosses,  John 
Williamses,  Morning  Stars,  etc.,  it  has  been  possible  to  keep 
up  communication  with  the  scattered  churches  of  the  various 
missions.  In  some  cases,  notably  that  of  the  Melanesian 
Mission,  these  vessels  bring  to  a  healthful  station  like  Norfolk 
Island,  natives  who  spend  in  a  cooler  latitude  the  unhealthful 
portion  of  the  year,  the  missionaries  returning  them  to  their 
homes  in  the  healthy  season  when  they  can  with  safety  visit 
them.  The  key  to  most  South  Sea  success  has  thus  been  the 
training  institute,  and  brave,  tactful  missionaries  who  can  at 
once  gain  a  foothold  on  hostile  and  savage  islands  in  order  to 
secure  persons  to  be  trained  and  later  to  be  an  indigenous 
leaven  in  their  homes. 

Because  communication  is  not  easy,  and  hence  visits  cannot 
be  frequent,  meetings  for  counsel,  held  half-yearly  in  many 
missions,  are  a  great  aid  in  the  work.  On  these  occasions  dele- 
gates from  the  native  pastorate  of  an  island  or  an  entire  group 
meet  to  consider  the  broader  questions  affecting  their  general 
work.  The  decisions  arrived  at  are  regarded  as  morally  bind- 
ing, though  in  minor  matters  each  pastor  enjoys  perfect  liberty. 


154  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

As  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  the  work  is  here  dele- 
gated to  native  church  leaders  and  with  very  little  oversight,  the 
value  of  these  conferences  cannot  be  overestimated. 

2.  The  native  agency  of  Oceania  is  exceptionally  effective. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  suggested  above,  namely,  the  careful 
training  given  them,  the  independence  which  is  strengthened 
by  the  missionary's  inability  to  work  beside  them  with  the  con- 
sequent responsibility  placed  upon  them,  and  the  remarkable 
spirit  of  heroism  which  has  repeatedly  secured  two  or  three 
times  as  many  volunteers  as  were  needed  to  take  the  place  of 
martyrs  who  had  met  a  most  tragic  fate.  They  make  fine 
preachers  and  fair  pastors,  and  in  Hawaii  are  almost  the  equals 
of  their  American  co-workers.  "  As  pioneers  they  are  invalu- 
able; and  in  small  islands  where  there  is  no  necessity  to  make 
a  new  translation  of  the  Scriptures  or  prepare  other  books, 
they  can  commence,  carry  on  and  complete,  with  an  occasional 
visit  from  a  missionary,  the  entire  work  of  evangelization." 

3.  Scarcely  less  admirable  is  the  native  church  of  these 
islands.  Though  the  statement  of  Rev.  S.  J.  Whitmee,  made 
in  1878,  is  still  largely  true,  it  might  also  be  made  with  refer- 
ence to  many  other  more  favored  fields.  He  said :  "  I  do  not 
think  the  standard  of  Christian  character  attained  by  the  con- 
verts generally  can  be  compared  to  that  reached  by  the  best, 
maturest  and  most  devoted  Christians  in  our  own  country. 
There  is  to  a  great  extent  a  want  of  stamina  in  many  of  the 
converts.  Many  show  themselves  to  be  mere  children,  or  even 
babes,  in  the  divine  life.  Strong  religious  feeling  is  almost 
entirely  absent  from  the  Malayo- Polynesians.  It  should,  how- 
ever, always  be  remembered  that  one  of  the  most  constant 
characteristics  of  the  race  to  which  they  belong  is  an  apathetic, 
easy-going  disposition.  Hence  we  ought  not  to  expect  in  them 
the  religious  enthusiasm  which  we  find  among  people  of  a 
warmer  and  more  enthusiastic  temperament." 

Mr.  Whitmee  in  the  same  address,  and  many  other  South 
Sea  missionaries,  testify  to  favorable  characteristics  of  the 
native  Church.    The  domestic,  social  and  moral  life  of  nearly 


OCEANIA  155 

all  the  islands  have  been  regenerated  under  missionary  influ- 
ence; the  forms  of  religion  are  widely  observed;  nearly  all 
the  people  attend  service  on  the  Sabbath,  so  that  the  Fiji  island- 
ers to-day  present  the  remarkable  spectacle  of  being  the  banner 
church-goers  of  the  world.  Out  of  a  total  population,  esti- 
mated in  1899  as  122,673,  the  "  Statesman's  Yearbook  "  for 
1901  asserts  that  94,032  were  attendants  at  the  native  churches 
of  the  Wesleyans  alone.  "  Family  worship  is  almost  uni- 
versally observed.  Nearly  all  the  people  are  able  to  read,  and 
indeed  they  do  read  God's  Holy  Word,  which  they  possess  in 
their  own  language." 

In  the  matter  of  self-support  they  rank  with  the  churches 
of  Burma  and  Central  Turkey,  and  in  some  points  surpass  them. 
Many  of  the  older  missions  are  entirely  independent  finan- 
cially. In  Hawaii  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association  has 
for  many  years  cared  for  nearly  all  the  work  on  that  group 
and  extended  its  operations  to  other  remote  islands.  The 
Wesleyan  churches  in  Tonga  were  willing  more  than  two  dec- 
ades ago  to  bear  the  entire  expense  of  mission  work  there,  in- 
cluding the  salaries  of  the  English  missionaries.  When  unable 
to  carry  such  heavy  burdens,  small  churches  and  islands  have 
paid  the  expense  of  having  parts  or  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament  printed  for  them,  often  saving  for  years  to  provide 
in  advance  for  the  cost.  In  addition  to  the  enabling  circum- 
stances of  a  warm  climate  and  simple  needs,  easily  provided  for, 
another  reason  why  these  islanders  have  been  so  preeminent  in 
this  important  feature  of  independence,  is  the  fact  that  the  mis- 
sionaries have  always  done  their  utmost  to  foster  this  spirit 
and  to  provide  for  its  exhibition.  They  have  also  been  led  to 
see  that  the  Church  must  be  indigenous,  and  hence  have  quite 
willingly  provided  their  own  chapels,  and  paid  the  salaries  of 
their  native  pastors  and  schoolmasters. 

11.  Obstacles  to  South  Sea  Missionary  Effort.  — 
I.  The  earliest  of  these,  that  of  the  baneful  effect  upon  morals 
and  health  arising  from  contact  with  expeditions  of  discovery 
and  the  subsequent  development  of  the  sandalwood  and  whal- 


156  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

ing  industries,  has  its  modern  counterpart  in  the  commercial 
enterprises  that  have  invaded  all  the  important  islands.  Trad- 
ers of  every  variety  have  threaded  the  archipelagoes  and, 
through  their  floating  Sodoms,  have  either  inoculated  with  vice 
the  already  impure  islanders,  or  else  have  by  their  unscru- 
pulous dealings  and  ferocious  attacks,  made  bitter  enemies  for 
the  missionary  who  belongs  to  the  same  white  race.  No  form 
of  commercial  diabolism,  except  that  of  the  following  para- 
graph, can  compare  with  the  liquor  traffic  which  is  desolating 
these  fair  seas.  Readers  of  Dr.  Paton's  life  will  recall  the 
pathetic  stories  connected  with  this  trade,  which  could  be 
duplicated  in  sorrowfulness  in  many  groups  besides  the  New 
Hebrides. 

2.  The  trade,  euphoniously  called  the  "  labor  traffic,"  but 
rightly  described  by  the  British  Parliament  when  it  passed  its 
"  Kidnapping  Act,"  still  persists ;  though  in  its  legitimate  form 
under  proper  governmental  regulations,  it  is  doubtless  of  ad- 
vantage to  such  groups  as  the  Fijis  and  the  adjacent  Australian 
mainland.  Unfortunately,  much  of  the  trade  is  criminal  in  the 
highest  degree.  In  some  cases  the  laborers  have  been  grossly 
deceived,  but  far  worse  than  that  is  the  well-known  indictment 
brought  against  them  by  Dr.  Paton.  Some  time  since  he  esti- 
mated that  fully  70,000  had  been  taken  from  their  homes  by 
these  slave-dealers.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  fiends 
have  even  donned  the  garb  of  a  missionary  and  secured  victims 
while  a  Bible  was  under  their  arm,  and  have  painted  their  slave- 
prisons  to  resemble  the  welcome  missionary  ship,  one  can 
readily  see  why  such  brave  heroes  as  Bishop  Patteson  should 
have  paid  the  well-merited  penalty  of  their  race  by  an  awful 
death.  Somewhat  less  infamous  than  this  traffic,  because  death 
earlier  releases  the  victims  from  a  wretched  existence,  is  the 
crime,  more  than  once  repeated,  of  putting  ashore  at  different 
points  patients  ill  with  measles,  in  order  to  "  sweep  these 
creatures  away  and  let  white  men  occupy  the  soil,"  as  three 
guilty  captains  explained  to  Dr.  Paton. 

3.  One  regretfully  records  as  a  most  serious  obstacle  in  the 


OCEANIA  157 

way  of  Protestant  missions  in  Oceania  the  unrighteous  pro- 
pagandism  of  Rome.  What  the  problem  is  in  islands  where 
Catholic  powers  have  no  direct  control  is  suggested  by  the 
1899  report  of  the  Melanesian  Mission.  Ground  won  by  the 
laborious  efforts  of  the  two  Selwyns,  Bishop  Patteson,  and 
other  equally  devoted  heroes,  is  now  exposed  to  the  wiles  of 
interloping  priests,  and  the  progress  made  will  probably  be 
followed  by  retrogression.  In  islands  under  French  and  the 
former  Spanish  rule,  the  chief  mode  of  Catholic  attack  has  been 
a  political  one,  the  priests  siding  with  aspiring  natives  who 
have  a  grievance  and  then  fomenting  strife  that  may  call  for 
foreign  intervention.  Even  when  a  Catholic  Power  grants 
religious  freedom,  it  practically  evicts  Protestant  missionaries 
who  have  taught  in  the  vernacular  by  requiring  all  instruction 
to  be  given  in  French  or  Spanish,  thus  in  most  cases  prevent- 
ing further  work  by  English-speaking  missionaries. 

III.  The  Societies  and  Typical  Work.  —  In  addition  to 
the  organizations  named  below,  others  listed  in  the  statistical 
survey  of  Volume  II,  are  doing  some  work  in  Oceania ;  yet  the 
bulk  of  it  is  carried  on  by  the  seven  societies  which  follow. 
They  are  given  in  the  order  of  entrance  on  the  field. 

I.  London  Missionary  Society. — This  pioneer  mission  has 
been  one  of  the  most  fruitful  in  the  South  Seas.  From  its  en- 
trance in  1797  it  has  had  missionaries  on  the  Society,  Mar- 
quesas, Friendly  (Tonga-tabu),  New  Hebrides,  Hervey, 
Samoan,  Loyalty,  and  Savage  Islands.  At  present,  however, 
its  representatives  are  found  only  on  the  last  four  of  these. 

A  survival  of  their  former  estate  that  has  recently  caused 
the  churches  much  loss,  is  the  war  of  two  years  since  in 
Samoa.  As  it  is  a  rule  of  the  Society's  churches  that  its 
members  are  not  to  engage  in  factional  fights,  many  have  been 
disciplined  in  consequence.  It  should  here  be  added  that  this 
Samoan  field  of  the  L.  M.  S.,  so  widely  exploited  by  the  late 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  is  not  a  typical  group.  Dr.  Mill,  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  says  of  its  inhabitants :  "  The 
people  appear  to  be  amongst  the  least  spoiled  of  the  Pacific 


158  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

folk,  in  spite  of  the  measure  of  civilization  they  have  assim- 
ilated." Yet  these  are  the  islanders  whose  ferocity  and  treach- 
ery were  so  great  that  after  the  murder  of  most  of  a  French 
crew  in  1787,  no  vessels  from  civilized  lands  dared  touch  those 
shores  for  many  years.  At  the  time  of  writing  this  a  report 
comes  that  the  German  governor  of  Savii  and  Upolu,  the 
islands  owned  by  Germany  in  the  Samoan  group,  has  served  an 
ultimatum  on  the  officials  of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
ordering  that  a  less  rigorous  observance  of  Sunday  obtain  ;  that 
the  annual  gathering  of  the  mission  at  Apia  be  omitted,  at  least 
those  features  of  it  which  bring  together  the  native  Christians ; 
and  that  no  more  churches  for  the  natives  be  built.  Orders 
forbidding  the  teaching  of  English  in  the  mission  schools  had 
been  issued  prior  to  this  ultimatum. 

Nine,  called  by  Captain  Cook  Savage  Island  because  of  the 
character  and  aspect  of  its  inhabitants,  illustrates  the  need  of 
mission  work,  even  after  fifty-two  years  of  occupation.  Mr. 
Lawes  reported  in  1900 :  "  Half  of  the  members  suspended 
from  church  fellowship  are  cases  of  immorality ;  the  remaining 
half  were  suspended  for  quarreling,  anger,  bad  language  and 
other  inconsistencies.  Dealing  month  by  month  with  these 
sins,  failings  and  weaknesses  is  painful  and  disheartening, 
and  we  cannot  understand  how  those  who  profess  love  for 
Christ  can  fall  into  such  sin.  Yet  judging  from  the  tone  of  his 
epistles,  Paul  was  familiar  with  similar  cases  amongst  the 
church  members  to  whom  he  wrote." 

2.  Second  on  the  field  was  the  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions.  Their  first  field  and  their 
Pacific  crown  was  the  Sandwich  Islands  which  they  entered 
in  1819.  To-day  it  is  a  Christian  land  in  the  same  imperfect 
sense  that  the  United  States,  of  which  it  now  forms  a  part,  is 
Christian,  and  the  missionary  is  the  chief  agent  in  this  spirit- 
ual and  political  transformation.  Though  the  Board  still  has 
its  representatives  there,  they  are  working  for  the  regions 
beyond,  with  this  as  a  training  base,  and  are  also  engaged  in 
the  evangelization  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  —  who  num- 


OCEANIA  159 

bered  24,407  in  1896,  and  the  Chinese  —  who  in  the  same  year 
were  less  numerous  by  only  some  3,000.  The  Board  has  followed 
the  wise  plan  pleaded  for  in  the  West  Indies,  in  that  it  has 
drawn  trained  missionaries  from  Japan  and  China  to  labor  for 
these  needy  subjects  of  the  United  States.  In  view  of  the  rapid 
increase  in  population  —  more  than  seventy-one  per  cent,  in 
the  decade  just  ended  —  and  the  fact  that  most  of  the  increase 
comes  from  without,  this  missionary  activity  is  fully  war- 
ranted. Buddhists  constitute  two-sevenths  of  the  154,001 
Hawaiians,  and  there  are  4,886  Mormons;  while  in  1896  the 
23,773  Protestants  were  offset  by  26,363  Romanists.  This  will 
account  for  the  growing  sense  of  responsibility  for  these  islands 
on  the  part  of  American  societies  having  a  smaller  force. 

This  same  Board  is  following  the  United  States  flag  to  its 
newly-acquired  possession,  Guam,  and  has  for  years  been  doing 
a  fruitful  work  in  Micro nesian  Islands.  At  present  the  inter- 
ruptions due  to  European  Catholic  interference,  based  upon  a 
political  foundation,  are  at  an  end  and  operations  are  being 
renewed.  The  old  difficulty  still  survives,  however,  namely, 
the  lack  of  a  sufficient  force  to  carry  out  a  wisely  planned  edu- 
cational  and   evangelistic   program. 

The  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association,  which  in  germ  be- 
gan four  years  after  the  first  missionaries  arrived,  is  one  of  the 
best  organized  of  the  Pacific  missionary  societies ;  though  it 
is  hardly  fair  to  compare  others  with  this  Association  com- 
posed so  largely  of  the  descendants  of  early  missionaries  or 
natives  who  have  become  wholly  civilized  and  well-to-do.  Be- 
sides being  a  very  efficient  home  missionary  society  for  the 
Hawaiian  group,  its  representatives  work  in  cooperation  with 
the  American  Board  on  the  Gilbert,  Marshall  and  Marquesas 
Islands.  In  the  latter  group  the  missionaries  have  to  contend 
with  what  Dr.  Mill  thus  describes :  "  The  moral  standard  of  the 
inhabitants  is  very  low,  worse  than  in  the  old  days  of  heathen- 
ism ;  and  the  European  vices  and  diseases,  which  are  rapidly 
killing  them  off,  have  become  subordinate  to  the  Chinese  vice 
of  opium-eating." 


l6o  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

3.  Considered  as  the  direct  continuators  of  the  British  Wes- 
leyans  whose  splendid  consecration  and  indomitable  courage 
won  glorious  laurels  in  the  South  Seas,  the  Australasian  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  must  next  be  named. 
Though  the  first  Wesleyan  missionary  in  Oceania  landed  in 

,  1822  on  one  of  the  Tonga  Islands,  and  though  they  have  done 
a  large  work  there,  as  well  as  for  New  Britain  and  the  Samoan 
group,  their  greatest  achievement  —  one  of  the  striking  mir- 
acles of  missions  —  has  as  its  theater  the  Fijis.  A  missionary 
historian  writes :  "  Many  and  fierce  were  the  conflicts  which 
these  brave  missionaries  and  those  who  came  after  them  had  to 
encounter  from  the  prevalence  of  war,  cannibalism  and  super- 
stition. Perhaps  there  never  was  another  such  struggle  between 
light  and  darkness,-  truth  and  error,  as  that  which  took  place 
in  the  course  of  the  Fiji  mission."  And  to-day  the  Wesleyan 
returns  from  Fiji  are  these:  Churches,  973;  missionaries,  11; 
native  ministers,  72;  catechists  and  teachers,  1,120;  school 
teachers,  2,723;  local  preachers,  2,175;  class  leaders,  4,958; 
native  members,  31,422;  on  probation,  8,251;  catechumens, 
10,107;  Sunday-school  scholars,  33,489;  and  adherents,  94,609. 
Other  social  and  moral  results,  not  reducible  to  figures,  have 
also  followed,  so  that  these  islands  are  in  some  respects  an 
object  lesson  to  the  Christian  world. 

4.  Next  in  chronological  order  must  be  placed  the  various 
Presbyterian  bodies  of  Canada,  Scotland  and  Australasia, 
which  unite  in  a  synodical  union  for  evangelizing  a  single 
group,  the  New  Hebrides.  Perhaps  no  other  Pacific  field  is 
so  well  known,  partly  because  of  the  number  of  missionary 
martyrs  who  have  there  shed  their  blood  and  the  fierceness 
which  still  makes  every  missionary  take  his  life  in  his  hands  as 
he  goes  to  his  daily  work,  and  partly  because  of  the  profound 
impression  made  by  the  presence  and  words  of  its  best  known 
advocate,  the  saintly  John  Gibson  Paton.  "  The  cruel,  treach- 
erous and  savage  characteristics  of  the  people  —  who  believe 
that  strangers  are  the  cause  of  storms,  disease  and  death  — 
the  exigencies  of  the  climate  and  the  utter  remoteness  from 


OCEANIA  l6l 

the  world's  traffic,  unite  to  make  the  New  Hebrides  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  of  all  mission  fields."  .What  it  cost  Dr. 
Paton  to  make  his  favorite  Tanna  "  The  Lighthouse  of  the 
Southern  Pacific,"  readers  of  his  fascinating  autobiography- 
well  know.  In  a  recent  address  he  pleaded  with  overwhelm- 
ing pathos  for  those  from  40,000  to  60,000  who  still  remain 
cannibals  after  some  3,000  have  yielded  themselves  to  Jesus 
Christ.  In  general  the  southern  islands  of  the  group  have 
been  largely  evangelized;  it  is  for  those  in  the  northern  sec- 
tions that  present  effort  is  so  much  needed. 

5.  A  year  after  the  establishment  of  permanent  work  in  the 
New  Hebrides  by  the  Presbyterians,  the  first  Bishop  Selwyn 
was  making  his  way  thither  in  his  twenty-one  ton  schooner, 
the  Undine,  as  the  pioneer  of  the  Melanesian  Mission.  In  the 
person  of  that  man,  as  versatile  as  Turkey's  hero,  Cyrus  Ham- 
lin, and  in  the  no  less  interesting  personality  of  his  successor, 
the  polished  and  talented  Bishop  Patteson,  lay  hidden  the 
secrets  of  the  Mission's  subsequent  power.  A  training-school 
in  the  salubrious  Norfolk  Island,  the  Southern  Cross  as  a 
floating  school-room  and  transport  ship  for  the  small,  well- 
trained  and  tested  army  of  occupation,  and  a  man  who  dared 
face  every  danger  and  was  able  to  win  friends  from  the  camp 
of  the  bitterest  enemies  —  these  are  the  salient  features  that 
have  marked  the  history  of  this  noble  mission  up  to  the  pres- 
ent moment.  Most  commendable  is  the  ruling  principle  of  the 
Mission,  not  to  encroach  upon  other  men's  ground,  and  to 
cultivate  comity  with  all  Protestant  bodies.  Perhaps  no  life 
is  so  full  of  suggestion  as  to  how  to  win  nature  peoples,  and 
so  charged  with  material  to  generate  enthusiasm,  as  John 
Coleridge  Patteson's  memoir,  written  by  the  talented  novelist, 
Miss  Yonge. 

Besides  operations  in  a  few  of  the  New  Hebrides  group, 
the  Mission  is  ministering  to  multitudes  in  the  Banks,  Torres, 
Santa  Cruz  and  Solomon  Islands,  thus  occupying  a  great  tri- 
angle in  the  heart  of  Melanesia.  With  how  great  success  the 
work  is  done  is  hinted  at  in  a  message  sent  by  a  heathen  chief 


l62  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

to  one  of  their  teachers,  in  which  he  asked  "  for  how  much 
he  could  buy  the  law  of  peace,  so  that  he  and  his  people  might 
be  able  to  live  together  in  the  same  peaceable  way  in  which 
they  saw  the  people  in  the  Christian  villages  living."  If  the 
Mission  can  be  provided  with  a  greatly  augmented  force  of 
missionaries  and  a  faster  mission  vessel,  far  greater  successes 
than  have  marked  the  past  are  sure  to  be  theirs  in  the  im- 
mediate future. 

6.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  began  in 
1862  its  labors  for  the  inhabitants  of  Hawaii,  as  well  as  for 
British  sailors  and  residents  there;  but  in  1900,  after  the  an- 
nexation of  the  islands  by  the  United  States,  the  Society's 
grants  ceased.  Two  of  its  clergymen  are  Chinese  and  are  do- 
ing a  good  work  for  their  countrymen.  By  an  arrangement 
with  the  American  Episcopal  Church  this  work  will  soon  be 
transferred  to  them.  Other  work  of  theirs  is  carried  on  at 
Norfolk  Island  and  on  the  Fijis. 

7.  In  1863  the  Paris  Societe  des  Missions  evangeliques 
took  charge  of  the  old  and  well  established  mission  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  in  the  Society  Islands,  and  in  1891 
and  1900  they  received  from  the  same  organization  two  sta- 
tions in  the  Loyalty  group.  They  also  have  a  representative 
in  the  Marquesas  Islands,  and  are  just  about  to  undertake  the 
evangelization  of  the  Kanakas  of  New  Caledonia,  the  Botany 
Bay  of  France,  where  one  inhabitant  out  of  five  is  a  convict 
either  undergoing  sentence  or  discharged.  In  fact,  the  evan- 
gelization of  New  Caledonia  is  the  principal  reason  for  their 
occupying  the  stations  on  the  Loyalty  Islands.  One  of  their 
workers,  M.  Koulinsky,  hopes  to  establish  there  an  industrial 
school  where  the  young  men  of  their  churches  may  be  taught 
the  ordinary  trades.  At  present  if  they  desire  to  learn  such 
trades,  they  must  apply  to  freed  convicts  for  instruction,  a 
course  fraught  with  much  temptation.  Another  danger  that 
the  meager  corps  of  missionaries  is  unable  to  fully  meet,  is 
that  of  providing  a  sufficient  number  of  Protestant  teachers 
in  order  to  thus  meet  the  active  pedagogical  enterprises  of  the 


OCEANIA  163 

Romanists  who  are  directing  their  chief  efforts  toward  the 
children  of  French  possessions  in  the  Pacific. 

IV.  Oceania's  Future. — i.  Opposite  Vieivs. — A  compe- 
tent anthropologist  and  student  of  this  problem,  Professor 
Keane,  thus  writes :  "  Everywhere  the  pure  Polynesian  race 
seems  to  be  rapidly  disappearing,  a  phenomenon  attributed 
partly  to  the  introduction  of  alcoholic  drinks,  partly  to  the 
abrupt  change  of  habits,  dress,  diet,  etc.,  enforced  or  encour- 
aged by  the  missionaries,  but  mainly  to  the  ravages  of  leprosy, 
smallpox,  syphilis,  measles,  and  especially  pulmonary  affec- 
tions, by  which  whole  communities  have  been  decimated." 
Even  the  missionaries  look  upon  the  gradual  encroachment  of 
civilization,  whose  vices  are  far  more  attractive  to  the  natives 
than  its  virtues,  as  the  death-knell  of  the  native  races.  Thus 
Dr.  Pease,  of  Micronesia,  writes :  "  The  race  of  islanders  has 
no  future  except  in  heaven.  As  civilization  is  introduced  more 
and  more,  they  will  gradually  become  extinct.  The  entire 
group  will  be  thoroughly  evangelized  in  a  few  years  more, 
and  then  the  work  will  culminate  and  decline,  as  in  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands." 

In  contrast  with  these  statements  may  be  quoted  the  opinion 
of  another  South  Sea  authority,  Rev.  J.  M.  Alexander :  "  Phy- 
sicians have  proved  beyond  question  that  the  diminution  of 
the  Pacific  islanders  has  been  caused  by  diseases  introduced 
by  the  vices  and  intemperance  of  the  white  races.  Christianity 
has  only  retarded  this  diminution.  In  the  islands  where  mis- 
sions have  not  been  established,  the  diminution  has  been  the 
most  rapid.  In  some  of  the  islands  the  natives  have  become 
almost  extinct.  But  in  the  other  islands  where  missions  have 
done  their  best  work,  and  where  foreigners  have  seldom  come, 
the  natives  are  increasing  in  number.  In  some  of  the  secluded 
localities  of  the  Samoa  Islands  the  population  has  been  increas- 
ing at  the  rate  of  one  per  cent,  per  annum.  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Moulton,  missionary  in  the  Tonga  group,  has  asserted  that 
the  population  of  the  Tonga  Islands  has  increased  twenty-five 
per  cent,  in  twenty  years,  and  that  in  the  island  of  Niue  the 


164  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

increase  is  more  than  three  per  cent,  per  annum.  The  expla- 
nation is  that  these  islands  lie  out  of  the  common  track  of  ships, 
and  that  in  them  missions  have  been  very  successful." 

2.  Reluctantly  assuming  the  truth  of  the  probable  decadence 
of  these  races,  zvhat  is  Christianity's  duty?  The  same  spirit 
that  has  brought  into  existence  hospitals  and  lengthened  life 
by  the  development  of  medical  science,  that  has  fought  for  the 
recovery  of  classes  of  patients  formerly  considered  doomed,  will 
see  in  this  almost  certain  decay  an  imperative  summons  to  ar- 
rest the  tendency.  The  activity  of  organizations  in  America  and 
Europe  that  are  rallying  around  such  workers  as  Dr.  Paton 
and  M.  Brunei  of  the  Paris  Missionary  Society  in  the  effort 
to  stay  these  deathful  tendencies,  are  being  heeded  to  some 
extent  by  the  governments  concerned,  whose  selfish  interests 
demand  that  the  islands  under  their  supervision  should  not 
suffer.  The  importation  of  Hindus  as  workers  on  Fiji  plan- 
tations and  the  lack  of  laborers  felt  in  other  groups  will  make 
these  European  powers  the  allies  of  the  missionary,  as  is  al- 
ready the  case  with  France,  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  What  is  continuously  needed  is  the  moral  policing  and 
outspoken  indictment  of  manifest  wrongs  that  has  marked  the 
history  of  missionary  work  in  these  archipelagoes.  Such  pro- 
tests and  watchfulness  will  eventually  secure  .the  same  safe- 
guarding of  native  life  that  one  sees  in  Denmark's  rule  in 
Greenland  and  in  Britain's  care  for  her  Canadian  Indians. 

A  higher  duty  presses  upon  the  Church  of  God  in  connection 
with  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The  white  Christian  of  the 
temperate  zone  must  help  bear  the  burden  of  these  weaker 
brethren  of  the  tropics.  A  century  did  not  accomplish  much 
in  the  development  of  such  favored  races  as  our  Anglo-Saxon, 
Teuton  and  Celtic  forefathers ;  and  we  must  not  expect  these 
lower  races  to  become  fully  confirmed  in  the  Christian  life  and 
civilization  in  two  generations.  The  latter  will  be  fostered  too 
rapidly,  perhaps,  without  much  farther  effort  on  the  part  of 
missionaries.  Their  chief  efforts  must  be  directed  toward  es- 
tablishing the  work  already  begun.    The  white  man's  spiritual 


OCEANIA  165 

strength,  no  less  than  his  sympathy  and  wisdom,  will  be  needed 
for  many  decades  before  the  islanders  will  have  become  able 
to  carry  on  the  work  with  assurance  of  permanent  success. 
The  record  of  the  Marquesas  Islands,  "  where  through  forty 
years  the  mission  work  was  repeatedly  begun  and  abandoned, 
and  the  natives  thereby  made  indifferent  and  actually  hostile 
to  Christianity,"  is  a  perpetual  reminder  that  quite  as  diffi- 
cult as  the  overthrow  of  paganism,  is  the  upbuilding  of  Chris- 
tian institutions,  and  the  far  more  serious  task  of  imparting  a 
stable,  aggressive  Christian  character.  In  the  desire  to  direct 
the  natives,  the  leaven  of  evil  coming  from  godless  foreigners 
must  be  rooted  out  and  victory  won  from  threatened  defeat  at 
the  hands  of  its  friends. 


VII 

NEW   ZEALAND  AND   AUSTRALIAN   ABORIGINES 
AND  NEW  GUINEA 

PART  I.  —  GENERAL 

On  the  western  border  of  Oceania,  and  —  so  far  as  New 
Zealand  and  New  Guinea  are  concerned  —  properly  belonging 
to  it,  are  those  two  great  islands,  and  Australia,  the  smallest 
of  the  continents.  Here  also  is  found  Tasmania ;  but  as  the 
last  of  its  aboriginal  inhabitants  died  in  1876,  it  does  not  fall 
within  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 

I.  The  Maoris  of  New  Zealand. — i.  Their  Land. — New 
Zealand  has  been  called  the  Switzerland  of  the  southern  hemis- 
phere, and  in  scenery  it  strongly  reminds  the  tourist  of  that 
country.  In  some  sections  of  the  islands,  however,  the  moun- 
tains which  are  so  characteristic  of  New  Zealand  give  place  to 
plains.  It  is  remarkable  that  a  region  exceeding  only  a  trifle 
the  area  of  the  State  of  Colorado  should  contain  such  a  variety 
of  attractions.  Thus  on  North  Island  is  a  wonderful  "  vol- 
canic belt  remarkable  for  its  hot  lakes  and  pools,  which  possess 
great  curative  virtue  for  all  rheumatic  and  skin  diseases,  its 
boiling  geysers  and  steaming  fumaroles,  sulphur  basins,  and 
pumice  plains.  The  exquisite  siliceous  terraces  of  Rotoma- 
hana,  once  the  cynosure  of  the  island,  are  now  buried  beneath 
the  debris  of  Mt.  Tarawera,  shattered  to  dust  by  the  gigantic 
steam  explosion  of  June,  1886.  In  the  South  Island  the  Cen- 
tral Alps  of  the  Mt.  Cook  district  display  to  the  visitor  the 
grandest  glaciers  in  the  temperate  zones,  splendid  clusters  of 
snowy  mountain  peaks,  and  stupendous  valleys  set  off  by  a 
166 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  167 

series  of  placid,  yellow-tinted  lakes.  The  southwest  coast  of 
Otago  is  pierced  by  a  series  of  deep  and  tranquil  sounds  of  ex- 
quisite beauty,  charming  the  beholder  now  with  their  pictur- 
esque variety  and  anon  with  their  precipitous  grandeur  and 
impressive  quietness  and  gloom."  In  the  North  Island,  which 
is  the  home  of  the  great  majority  of  the  Maoris,  there  are 
level  plains  of  great  fertility  on  the  eastern  coast,  while  on  the 
western  side,  their  chief  habitat,  "  the  country  is  more  undu- 
lating, swelling  in  places,  and  in  others  made  up  of  low  steep 
hills  of  a  blue  calcareous  clay  called  papa,  the  soil  of  which  is 
exceedingly  well  fitted  for  pasture." 

2.  The  climate  of  these  islands  is  singularly  healthful,  so 
much  so  that  the  death-rate  among  the  whites  is  here  the  low- 
est in  the  world.  Even  in  the  remote  south  snow  rarely  remains 
on  the  lower  levels  more  than  a  day.  The  only  serious  climatic 
drawback  is  the  wind,  with  the  exception  of  the  almost  unin- 
habited southwest  coast,  which  is  perpetually  saturated  with 
moisture. 

3.  Among  the  796,389  persons  who  on  the  last  day  of  1899 
inhabited  New  Zealand,  39,854  zvere  Maoris,  3,503  of  whom, 
however,  were  half-castes.  A  large  proportion  of  these  have 
become  Christianized.  The  comparatively  small  number  who 
are  not  Christians  are  anxious  to  rise  in  the  social  scale,  and 
hence  are  very  willing  to  have  their  children  educated.  Much 
of  this  education  is  received  in  Christian  schools.  As  will  be 
seen  in  Part  II,  the  Hau-hau  superstition  has  led  to  a  singular 
compound  of  Christianity  and  heathenism,  which  makes  many 
of  them  neither  heathen  nor  Christian. 

II.  Australian  Aborigines.  —  i.  Their  Environment. — 
While  these  people  are  scattered  over  Australia,  the  most  of 
them  are  found  in  Queensland,  the  northeastern  section.  A 
few  of  them  have  been  employed  as  shepherds  under  Euro- 
pean settlers,  and  others  have  been  made  a  sort  of  police  against 
their  fierce  native  brethren.  Those  who  are  remote  from  the 
settlers  live  in  a  land  of  very  great  limitations.  As  is  well 
known,  the  central  section  of  Australia  is  quite  largely  desert 


l68  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

or  steppe  land.  A  great  deal  of  the  country  is  cursed  with 
salt,  and  hence  is  either  barren  or  not  very  fertile.  In  other 
sections  where  there  is  considerable  vegetation,  the  traveler  is 
struck  by  its  decidedly  archaic  character,  reminding  one  of 
geological  vegetation.  Other  plants  are  found  here  which 
have  a  tough,  leathery  texture  enabling  them  to  resist  the  wilt- 
ing effect  of  great  evaporation,  while  still  others  present  no 
reflecting  surface  but  only  narrow  edges  to  the  vertical  sun- 
light. The  Australian  bush,  however,  is  redolent  with  the 
aroma  of  gum-trees  and  volatile  oils  secreted  to  keep  out  the 
heat  rays.  The  colossal  eucalyptus  attains  a  height  of  400  feet, 
almost  rivaling  the  Californian  sequoia.  Notwithstanding  the 
somewhat  arid  character  of  these  regions,  there  are  in  Aus- 
tralia about  10,000  species  of  plant  life,  considerably  more 
than  are  to  be  found  in  all  Europe.  "  The  scrub  "  is  one  of 
the  striking  features  of  the  landscape  and  "  presents  anything 
but  a  cheering  prospect,  with  perhaps  hardly  one  tree  within 
visible  distance  and  scarcely  a  bird  to  be  descried 
overhead  in  flight.  There  is,  however,  one  agreeable 
exception  formed  by  the  tea  tree,  a  flowering  shrub 
abounding  in  almost  all  parts  of  Australia."  It  is  often 
utterly  impossible  to  penetrate  these  growths,  so  dense 
are  they.  In  cheering  contrast  to  such  scenery,  the  traveler 
comes  upon  some  sheltered  valleys  clothed  with  most  luxu- 
riant vegetation.  "  Indian  figs  draped  with  strange  parasites, 
creepers,  ferns,  flame-trees  and  vines,  and  the  loftiest  trees 
are  all  intermingled  in  a  labyrinth  of  the  most  graceful  forms 
and  brilliant  colors." 

2.  The  animal  life  of  Australia  is  as  peculiar  as  the  vege- 
tation. Almost  all  the  native  mammalia  belong  to  the  archaic 
marsupial  class  —  opossums,  flying  squirrels,  wombats  and 
some  forty-five  species  of  the  kangaroo  tribe,  and  the  unique 
pouched  mole,  as  well  as  those  egg-laying  mammals,  the  duck- 
bill and  spiny  echidna.  These  two  latter  are  another  indica- 
tion of  still  higher  antiquity  than  the  marsupials  proper.  Other 
forms  of  life,  such  as  the  whistling  spider  and  burrowing  cray- 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  169 

fish  —  which  constructs  and  fills  an  underground  tank  in 
which  to  spend  the  dry  season  —  and  the  giant  earthworm, 
six  feet  in  length,  constitute  part  of  the  environment  of  the 
aborigines. 

3.  Climate  and  Mortality.  —  The  climate  of  Australia  is 
almost  Saharan  in  the  intensity  of  heat.  Its  worst  feature, 
however,  is  the  uncertainty  and  inequality  of  rainfall  in  all 
parts  of  the  island,  which  result  in  alternations  of  drought 
and  flood.  When  rain  is  withheld,  vegetation  withers  over 
large  areas,  and  in  1884  drought  was  said  to  have  destroyed 
10,000,000  sheep.  The  numbing  influences  of  great  diurnal  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  are  also  injurious  to  the  aborigines, 
who,  when  not  employed  by  the  settlers,  are  nomadic. 

Diseases  are  only  partially  due  to  climate,  as  the  lack  of 
nutrition  and  contact  with  foreigners  are  responsible  for  many 
of  them.  The  traveler  marks  the  large  number  of  aged  per- 
sons, but  in  reality  this  is  not  due  to  great  age  so  much  as  to 
early  senility.  Among  the  children  there  is  very  great  mor- 
tality. This  is  largely  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  infanticide, 
the  child  ordinarily  being  killed  immediately  after  birth.  "  In 
i860  one-third  of  all  the  children  born  among  the  Narrinyeri 
were  killed  —  every  child  that  was  born  before  the  next  elder 
could  walk,  all  misshapen  children,  one  or  both  of  a  pair  of 
twins."  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  parents  are  without  nat- 
ural affection.  "  Fathers  may  be  seen  carefully  leading  their 
tired  children  or  carrying  them."  If  they  die,  mothers  not  in- 
frequently carry  the  bodies  till  they  decompose.  For  climatic 
and  other  reasons,  therefore,  the  mortality  among  the  abori- 
gines is  very  great.  These,  with  the  wanton  slaughters  of  "  de- 
fenceless natives  —  veritable  man-hunts  accompanied  by  licen- 
tiousness with  its  soul  and  body-destroying  consequences,  the 
importation  of  spirits,  etc."  —  readily  account  for  their  great 
diminution  in  numbers. 

4.  Racial  Characteristics.  —  It  is  a  question  as  to  where 
these  aborigines  should  be  classed,  as  they  bear  some  resem- 
blance to  the  negro;  other  features  remind  one  of  the  Mon- 


170  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

goHan,  and  still  others  suggest  a  Caucasian  origin.  Mr.  C.  H. 
Barton  considers  them  a  survival  from  the  far  distant  past, 
and  regards  them  as  coeval  with  the  existing  condition  of  the 
land  which  they  inhabit.  As  to  mental  characteristics,  they  are 
inferior  to  the  Polynesians,  but  have  considerable  acuteness 
as  well  as  remarkable  ingenuity  in  devising  and  interpreting 
their  message  sticks,  a  species  of  picture-writing  plus  some- 
thing approaching  alphabetic  signs.  It  often  happens  that 
tribes  containing  but  a  few  hundred  people,  living  within  a 
few  miles  of  each  other,  have  scarcely  a  phrase  in  common. 
Outside  the  mountain  districts,  however,  languages  are  more 
widely  spread.  The  black  fellow's  intellect  is  directed,  not  so 
much  toward  interchange  of  ideas,  as  to  the  means  of  procur- 
ing food.  "  He  is  unsurpassed  in  tracking  and  running  down 
his  prey,  and  his  weapons,  though  of  the  most  primitive  kind, 
are  well  adapted  to  assist  him  in  that  purpose,  while  his  rude, 
culinary  and  domestic  apparatus  manifest  equal  skill."  The 
native  Australian  boomerang  is  as  effective  and  unique  in 
its  way  as  the  throwing  stick  of  Greenland  and  South  America, 
though  of  an  entirely  different  character.  Architecture  he 
knows  nothing  of,  but  if  caves  are  at  hand  they  are  ready- 
made  homes.  When  these  are  not  available,  a  screen  of  twigs 
and  bushes  covered  with  foliage  or  turf  suffices.  The  wife 
usually  carries  on  her  back  the  whole  household  outfit,  which 
is  primitive,  but  sufficient.  Woman's  lot  in  such  a  commu- 
nity is  a  very  hard  one.  She  is  bound  to  keep  her  husband  in 
vegetable  food,  such  as  roots,  seeds  and  leaves.  If  she  fails 
in  this,  "  she  is  liberally  treated  to  mauling  and  spearings,  so 
that  a  wife  generally  appears  bruised  and  gashed  all  over." 
No  government  outside  that  of  the  family  is  prevalent  and 
there  are  only  a  few  traditional  rules  about  property. 

5.  Religion.  —  Mr.  Acton  is  authority  for  the  statement 
that  "  the  only  idea  of  a  god  known  to  be  entertained  by  these 
people  is  that  of  Buddai,  a  gigantic  old  man  lying  asleep  for 
ages  with  his  head  resting  upon  his  arm,  which  is  deep  in  the 
sand.    He  is  expected  one  day  to  awake  and  eat  up  the  world. 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  I7I 

They  have  no  religion  beyond  these  gloomy  dreams.  Their 
notions  of  duty  relate  mostly  to  neighborly  service  and  social 
interest,  and  they  are  not  all  thieves  or  liars,  but  are  capable  of 
many  good  deeds."  It  is  hardly  true,  however,  that  Buddai  is 
the  only  god  known.  Ratzel  speaks  of  Daiamai  who,  among 
some  of  them,  is  regarded  as  the  creator  of  men.  "  After  man 
had  been  made  the  god  sent  his  daughter  Karakarak  to  kill 
the  serpents.  She  had  a  stick  which  in  breaking  produced 
fire."  A  multitude  of  creation  and  fire  myths  are  prevalent 
among  them,  and  gods  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  returning 
to  heaven  after  accomplishing  great  things  and  suffering  ill- 
treatment.  Sometimes  these  deities  are  changed  into  beasts 
or  appear  in  beast  incarnations.  "  The  souls  of  the  good  go 
after  death  to  the  good  gods,  those  of  the  evil  perish.  The 
widely  spread  notion  that  the  dead  become  white  men  and 
return  as  such,  is  met  with  here,  also ;  indeed  the  natives  have, 
in  fact,  greeted  certain  whites  as  departed  friends."  Naturally 
sorcerers  and  magic,  with  the  evil  spirits  who  are  to  be  pro- 
pitiated, are  prominent  in  their  life.  The  strongest  material 
for  magic  resides  in  certain  parts  of  the  human  body;  hence 
the  black  fellows  try  to  obtain  the  bones  of  birds  and  fishes 
which  have  been  consumed  by  the  enemy,  thinking  that  thereby 
they  can  acquire  power  over  that  man  for  life  or  death.  A 
study  of  the  religious  and  social  conditions  of  these  black 
fellows  shows  that  they  rank  among  the  lowest  races,  with 
perhaps  only  two  or  three  others  whose  condition  is  more  pitia- 
ble or  fitted  to  awaken  Christian  sympathy. 

III.  New  Guinea.  —  i.  Area  and  Political  Divisions.  — 
Unlike  the  previous  portion  of  the  chapter,  this  section  has  to 
do  with  the  entire  population  of  a  great  island,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  if  Australia  and  Greenland  be  excluded.  Its  area 
is  312,329  square  miles,  divided  among  the  three  great  Powers 
exercising  authority  over  it  as  follows :  British  New  Guinea, 
twenty-nine  per  cent,  of  the  territory,  the  southeastern  quarter 
of  the  island;  German  New  Guinea,  twenty-three  per  cent.,  its 
territory  lying  immediately  north  of  that  of  Great  Britain ;  and 


172  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Dutch  New  Guinea,  constituting  forty-eight  per  cent.,  the 
western  half  of  the  island. 

2.  Physical  Features  and  Climatic  Conditions.  —  The  phys- 
ical features  of  this  country  are  diametrically  opposed  to 
those  found  in  its  great  southern  neighbor,  Australia,  with 
which  it  was  apparently  connected  in  geological  times.  It  is 
a  land  of  mountains,  the  highest  in  the  Oceanic  world,  the 
Bismarck  range,  for  instance,  having  two  peaks,  which  have 
an  approximate  altitude  of  from  15,000  to  20,000  feet.  The 
mountainous  backbone  of  the  island  is  clothed  with  dense  and 
very  damp  forests.  Government  expeditions  have  in  some 
cases  attempted  to  force  their  way  through  the  vegetation,  and 
with  their  hatchets  succeeding  in  making  only  a  mile  a  day; 
though  in  other  portions  of  the  island  freer  access  to  the  in- 
terior is  possible.  At  present,  however,  foreigners  know  prac- 
tically nothing  of  the  remote  interior. 

Much  in  the  scenery  reminds  one  of  the  high  volcanic  islands 
described  in  the  previous  chapter.  One  characteristic  feature 
that  is  very  common  is  the  presence  of  many  varieties  of  birds 
of  paradise.  Indeed,  it  deserves  the  name  of  the  Land  of  the 
Bird  of  Paradise  quite  as  much  as  Guatemala  does  that  of  the 
Land  of  the  Quetzal.  Another  characteristic  reminding  one 
of  Mexico  and  Central  America  is  the  superimposed  vegeta- 
tion zones.  Sir  W.  MacGregor's  party  passed  "  successively 
through  the  domains  of  tropical  plants,  such  as  the  cocoanut, 
sago,  banana,  mango,  taro  and  sugar  cane,  and  of  such  tem- 
perate sub-tropical  growths  as  the  cedar,  oak,  fig,  acacia,  pine 
and  tree-fern,  and  were  gladdened  on  the  higher  slopes  by  the 
sight  of  the  wild  strawberry,  forget-me-not,  daisy,  buttercup 
and  other  familiar  British  plants.  Toward  the  summits  these 
were  succeeded  by  true  alpine  flora." 

The  rain-bearing  clouds  condensing  on  the  alpine  slopes  oc- 
casion much  rain  and  considerable  snow  at  the  higher  altitudes. 
In  general  the  great  dampness  and  the  malarious  exhalations, 
the  obstinate  scaly  ringworm  and  rheumatism,  unfit  the  island 
for  Occidental  settlement.    When  the  uplands  beyond  the  fever 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  1 73 

zone  are  made  accessible,  however,  health  resorts  for  officials, 
traders  and  missionaries  may  relieve  the  present  limitations  to 
a  prolonged  and  useful  life. 

3.  The  People  of  New  Guinea.  —  The  races  are  greatly 
mixed.  Four  main  elements  are  discernible,  however :  the 
Negrito  of  the  northwestern  peninsula  and  central  highlands ; 
the  eastern  Polynesian  on  the  southeast  coast ;  the  Malay  along 
the  northwestern  sea  border  and  around  the  shore  of  Geelvink 
Bay ;  and  the  Papuan  proper  scattered  over  the  entire  island. 
The  word  Papua  is  a  Malay  one  signifying  "  frizzled  "  in 
reference  to  the  hair.  This  race  is  also  found  throughout 
Melanesia,  and  because  it  exists  here  in  its  greatest  purity 
many  writers  contend  that  Papuan  is  a  better  adjective  to  apply, 
to  the  race  than  Melanesian.  The  total  population  is  estimated 
at  660,000. 

Some  of  their  leading  physical  characteristics  are  "  a  me- 
dium height ;  fleshy  rather  than  muscular  frame ;  color,  a  sooty 
brown,  varying,  but  decidedly  darker  than  the  Malay ;  high 
but  narrow  and  rather  retreating  forehead  with  thick  brows ; 
nose  sometimes  flat  and  wide  but  oftener  hooked ;  lips  thick 
and  projecting  so  as  to  make  the  chin  seem  retreating;  high 
cheek-bones ;  hair  black,  frizzly,  trained  into  a  njop."  The 
civilization  of  these  tribes,  who  are  much  isolated,  varies,  but 
seldom  reaches  even  the  average  Pacific  standard. 

4.  Papuan  homes,  like  the  Australian  flora,  remind  one  of 
remote  antiquity.  Thus  some  of  those  along  the  coast,  nota- 
bly a  pile  village  at  Sovek  on  the  north  shore,  is  an  almost 
exact  reproduction  of  the  lake  dwellings  of  the  archaeologists. 
Away  from  the  coast  also  this  custom  of  building  some  dis- 
tance from  the  ground  is  quite  characteristic.  Many  houses 
"  stand  upon  lofty  piles  which,  with  their  sloping  stays,  pre- 
sent a  highly  original  type  of  architecture.  They  hang  like 
eagles'  nests  some  fifty  feet  in  the  air  on  their  thin  swaying 
trestle-work,  looking  as  if  every  puff  of  wind  must  sweep 
them  away.  These  airy  dwellings  are  entered  by  means  of 
slanting  tree  stems  with  steps  nicked  in  them."    Another  lofty 


174  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

abode,  the  well-known  tree-house,  is  also  found  on  the  island. 
A  platform  is  erected  at  a  distance  from  the  ground  and  a 
house  built  thereon.  The  lower  branches  are  then  carefully 
trimmed  away  and  entrance  is  by  a  vine  ladder  which  can  be 
drawn  up  at  will.  For  convenience,  another  hut  for  times  of 
security  is  built  near  the  foot  of  the  tree.  A  plentiful  supply 
of  stones  and  other  weapons  of  defence  in  the  tree-house  con- 
vert it  into  a  fort  when  the  enemy  appears.  Evil  spirits  are 
kept  away  from  residents  of  these  lofty  abodes  as  also  the  pre- 
vailing malaria.  The  pile  houses  are  evidently  modeled  after 
the  boat,  as  they  have  an  inverted  boat-shaped  roof.  Some  of 
these  buildings  are  500  feet  long  and  look  when  undivided  like 
a  dark  tunnel,  windows  being  guarded  against  because  of  the 
belief  that  they  afford  a  ready  entrance  to  hostile  spirits.  Each 
of  these  houses  has  a  family  head,  the  rest  of  its  inhabitants 
being  his  relatives  or  slaves. 

5.  The  religion  of  these  peoples  is  of  a  primitive  sort. 
"  There  is  no  general  object  of  worship,  consequently  no  regu- 
lar priesthood.  The  institution  of  tabu  is  less  oppressive  and 
its  sanctions  less  awful ;  but  the  transgressor  may  still  have 
to  reckon  not  only  with  the  society  of  individuals  who  impose 
it,  but  also  with  the  offended  spirits."  In  western  New  Guinea 
the  Dutch  missionaries  report  the  existence  of  a  vague  notion 
of  a  universal  spirit,  the  combination  of  several  malevolent 
powers,  who  resides  in  the  woods.  Another  has  its  home  in 
the  clouds  above  the  trees  and  carries  off  children.  Still  an- 
other lurks  in  the  rocks  by  the  sea  and  raises  storm.  Coinci- 
dent with  such  beliefs  is  the  feeling  that  ancestral  spirits  are 
naturally  interested  in  the  welfare  of  their  descendants.  Hence, 
as  a  protection  against  malignant  powers,  the  people  construct 
rude  images,  each  representing  a  dead  ancestor,  whose  spirit 
is  then  urged  to  occupy  the  image  and  protect  them  against 
their  enemies.  "  Omens  are  observed  before  starting  on  any 
expedition ;  if  they  are  unfavorable  the  person  threatened  re- 
tires and  another  day  is  chosen  and  the  process  repeated.  They 
have  magicians  and  rainmakers,  and  sometimes  resort  to  or- 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  1 75 

deal  to  discover  a  crime.  Temples,  so  called,  are  found  in  the 
North  and  West,  built  like  the  houses,  but  larger,  the  piles  be- 
ing carved  into  figures,  and  the  roof  beams  and  other  promi- 
nent points  decorated  with  representations  of  crocodiles  or 
lizards,  coarse  human  figures,  and  other  grotesque  ornamen- 
tation, but  their  use  is  not  clear."  In  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  island  religious  ideas  are  more  rudimentary,  but  here  also 
there  is  a  prevalent  dread  of  departed  spirits,  "  especially  those 
of  the  hostile  inland  tribes  and  of  a  being  called  Vata  who 
causes  disease  and  death."  The  ancestral  cult  is  very  simple. 
Instead  of  the  Chinese  tablet,  Papuans  keep  as  a  relic  of  the 
departed  either  the  head  or  the  jawbone.  Like  the  Chinese, 
they  place  food  on  the  grave,  and  in  addition  make  a  path  to 
the  sea  that  the  spirits  may  bathe. 


PART   II.  —  MISSIONARY 

I.  New  Zealand.  —  Just  now,  when  the  attention  of  the 
world  is  being  called  to  this  "  experiment  station  in  social 
science,"  it  is  hard  to  realize  that  a  century  ago,  instead  of 
leading  civilized  countries  as  it  does  at  present  in  land  and 
labor  regulations,  the  public  ownership  of  great  franchises, 
the  extension  of  suffrage  to  women,  etc.,  these  magnificent 
islands  were  the  abode  of  savages !  While  many  other  factors, 
notably  immigration  from  Great  Britain,  have  entered  into  the 
making  of  the  colony,  the  most  significant  of  all  of  them  was 
the  coming  in  1814  of  the  penal  chaplain,  Samuel  Marsden, 
and  his  co-laborers,  representing  the  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety. Early  in  the  next  decade  the  Wesleyans  appeared  on  the 
scene,  and  these  two  societies  labored  side  by  side  for  many 
years.  The  former  is  at  present  the  only  society  doing  any 
important  work  for  the  Maoris  as  a  distinctively  foreign  mis- 
sionary undertaking.  The  New  Zealand  Wesleyan  Confer- 
ence still  has  charge  of  such  missions,  but  only  as  part  of  its 
regular    church    program.       With  the    Presbyterians    of  the 


176  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Colony  they  have  in  their  churches  about  5,000  Maori  Chris- 
tians, a  smaller  number  being  communicants. 

1.  Varied  Fortunes  of  the  C.  M.  S.  —  In  the  last  report  of 
this  Society  the  number  of  native  Christians  belonging  to  its 
New  Zealand  Mission  was  18,251,  of  whom  only  2,482  were 
communicants.  Though  the  first  eleven  years  were  a  time  of 
discouragement  with  not  a  single  convert  to  gladden  the  mis- 
sionary, a  marvelous  movement  began  five  years  later,  which 
aided  by  a  similar  experience  of  the  Wesleyans,  resulted  in  the 
conversion  of  almost  the  entire  Maori  people.  Bishop  Selwyn 
wrote  on  arriving  at  his  new  diocese  in  1842 :  "  We  see  here 
a  whole  nation  of  pagans  converted  to  the  faith.  Where  will 
you  find  throughout  the  Christian  world  more  signal  manifes- 
tations of  the  presence  of  the  Spirit,  or  more  living  evidences 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  ?  "  At  that  time  the  number  attend- 
ing church  services  was  not  less  than  thirty-five  or  forty  thou- 
sand. How  explain  the  lapse  from  this  happy  condition  to 
that  hinted  at  in  the  statistics  above  given,  there  being  less 
than  25,000  Maoris  now  counted  as  Protestants? 

2.  One  cause  for  this. great  falling  off  in  sixty  years  is  a 
series  of  wars  beginning  with  1843  and  ending  in  1869.  These 
"  arose  partly  from  the  jealousy  of  the  power  and  influence  of 
the  colonists,  but  chiefly  from  endless  disputes  about  land 
sales  which  were  greatly  complicated  by  the  vague  tribal  tenure 
on  which  land  was  held  by  the  natives."  When  it  is  added 
that,  previous  'to  the  practical  disappearance  of  war  in  1838 
through  the  teachings  of  Christianity,  the  introduction  of  mus- 
kets and  powder  had  destroyed  about  one-fourth  their  race, 
and  that  intercourse  with  whites,  especially  whalers  and  buyers 
of  tatooed  heads,  had  its  usual  destructive  effect  on  the  abori- 
gines, the  present  state  of  the  Maoris  is  an  argument  for  in- 
stead of  against  missions. 

3.  A  still  greater  obstacle  to  missionary  effort  that  has  re- 
sulted in  a  large  falling  off  in  church  membership  is  the 
"  Bide  awhile,"  "  Pai  Marire,"  or  "  Hau-hau "  superstition, 
which  first  gained  power  in  1864,  and  which  to-day  attracts 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  l^J 

many  to  this  melange  of  Christianity  and  heathenism.  It  was 
an  incident  of  the  wars  between  the  Maoris  and  foreigners, 
and  was  based  on  the  Old  Testament,  —  for  which,  like  many 
nature  peoples,  they  felt  a  special  predilection,  —  plus  current 
superstitions  and  idolatry.  It  arose  "  from  the  delusion  of  a 
half-witted  man,  who  declared  that  the  Angel  Gabriel  and  the 
Virgin  Mary  had  appeared  to  him  and  had  promised  that 
Maoris  uttering  a  dog-like  bark,  '  Hau-hau,'  should  drive  the 
white  man  into  the  sea.  The  king  faction  took  up  the  term 
Hau-hau  as  their  battle-cry,  and  the  war  party  thus  acquired 
the  name  for  themselves.  The  votaries  of  the  Hau-hau  god 
excited  themselves  to  a  pitch  of  temporary  insanity  as  they 
danced  around  a  pole.  The  priests,  whose  influence  had  waned 
during  the  missionary  supremacy,  were  only  too  eager  to  re- 
vive their  power  over  the  people,  and  thus  they  became  the 
inspirers  of  the  new  superstition.  They  taught  that  Maoris 
had  taken  the  place  of  the  ancient  Jews  in  the  favoritism  of 
Heaven.  Maoris  were  the  true  Israel,  and  for  their  co-relig- 
ionists, the  Jews,  they  manifested  unbounded  respect ;  while 
on  the  other  hand  intelligent  Hebrews  spoke  of  the  Hau-hau 
ceremonial  as  essentially  Jewish.  Of  course  the  white  man 
personated  the  Pharaoh  and  the  rebel  chief,  Topare,  became 
the  Maori  Moses,  sent  to  rescue  the  New  Zealand  race  by 
drowning  the  foreign  yoke  in  the  sea.  The  grossest  immoral- 
ity was  reintroduced  into  worship ;  and  this  melancholy  delu- 
sion, the  offspring  of  lust  and  cruelty,  had  in  a  few  months 
completely  altered  the  character  of  the  people  whose  rapid 
Christianization  was  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  mission- 
ary enterprise  in  the  nineteenth  century."  A  full  study  of  this 
strange  development  casts  much  light  on  the  origin  of  some  of 
the  early  extravagances  of  church  history,  and  enforces  the 
duty  of  carefully  shepherding  early  converts  until  they  fully 
understand  the  Bible  and  are  settled  in  the  faith  and  its  out- 
growing life.  Another  recent  defection,  due  to  Mormon  mis- 
sionaries, who,  according  to  the  C.  M.  S.  "  Intelligencer," 
have  won  3,000  native  converts,  emphasizes  this  duty. 


178  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

4.  The  Maori' s  future  is  not  bright.  Christianity  has  its 
roots  deep  down  in  the  lives  of  many  splendid  representatives 
of  the  race,  and  missionary  societies  will  doubtless  continue 
their  blessed  ministrations  to  body,  mind  and  spirit.  Yet  the 
final  outcome  is  perhaps  that  pictured  by  Edwin  Hodder: 
"  While  with  one  hand  his  English  brother  has  ennobled  the 
Maori,  with  the  other  he  has  destroyed  him.  Christianity  has 
striven  to  say  to  him.  Arise  and  go  unto  the  Father;  civiliza- 
tion has  actually  said,  Succumb  and  go  to  the  devil.  Mission- 
aries now  seeking  the  regeneration  of  the  race  speak  alto- 
gether despairingly  of  its  future.  One  of  them,  in  language 
said  to  be  none  too  strong,  ascribes  their  decay  to  '  unclean- 
ness  —  inwardly  and  outwardly  —  in  diet,  dress  and  habita- 
tion, in  body  and  mind,  in  all  their  thoughts,  words  and  ac- 
tions.' For  four  centuries  they  multiplied,  until  the  white  man 
set  his  fatal  foot  on  their  shores,  and  introduced  alongside  of 
his  heavenly  message  loathsome  vices  entailing  disease  and 
death.  Since  then  they  have  been  steadily  diminishing  and 
soon  the  New  Zealander,  predicted  by  the  prophet  Macaulay 
as  surveying  the  ruins  of  our  modern  Babylon  from  London 
Bridge,  will  be  as  impossible  a  personage  as  his  own  Moa," 
now  extinct. 

II.  Aboriginal  Australians.  —  i.  The  evangelization  of 
the  black  fellows  and  the  Chinese  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
a  number  of  agencies.  English,  German  and  Australian  rep- 
resentatives of  Catholic,  Episcopal,  Congregational,  Metho- 
dist, Presbyterian,  Quaker,  Lutheran  and  Moravian  societies 
or  churches,  often  aided  by  the  Government,  have  devoted 
themselves  to  this  most  philanthropic  and  Christian  task. 

2.  Forms  of  Effort.  —  At  the  present  time  at  least  ten  so- 
cities  are  prosecuting  the  work,  while  individuals  and  churches 
are  laboring  for  the  few  scattered  members  of  tribes  who  live 
in  the  larger  towns.  The  most  active  of  these  are  the  Aus- 
tralian branch  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  Wesley- 
ans,  Presbyterians,  Bible  Christians  and  Moravians.  An  aid 
in  the  work  is  the  assignment  to  reservations  of  the  black 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  1 79 

fellows,  coupled  with  some  governmental  restrictions  and 
financial  assistance.  Government  has  also  cooperated  with 
missionaries  in  exploring  expeditions,  thus  acquainting  the 
public,  and  the  societies  as  well,  with  the  need  for  missionary- 
effort.  As  glorious  exceptions  to  the  general  law  laid  down 
by  Dr.  Thompson,  one  finds  such  oases  in  the  •  mental  and 
moral  desert  as  exist  in  the  Moravian  station  of  Ramahyuck, 
where  the  famous  veteran,  Hagenauer,  still  labors,  and  in  the 
union  station  of  Mapoon  among  the  cannibals,  where  work  is 
carried  on  by  a  joint  effort  of  Presbyterians,  Lutherans  and 
Moravians,  aided  by  the  funds  of  the  commonwealth.  In  many 
cases  children  readily  learn,  homes  are  built,  strong  Christian 
lives  are  lived  in  the  midst  of  fierce  temptation,  and  the  abodes 
of  degraded  cannibals  become  the  refuge  of  shipwrecked  sail- 
ors. Yet  the  old  story  of  rapid  decay  obtains  here  also,  and 
how  long  it  will  be  before  the  less  than  28,000  aborigines  pass 
away  may  be  guessed  from  the  extinction  of  the  Adelaide, 
Burra,  Rufus  and  other  tribes,  and  the  further  fact  that  it 
took  but  sixty-six  years  from  the  arrival  of  the  first  English- 
man in  1803  for  the  last  Tasmanian  to  disappear.  What  the 
Church  of  God  does  for  these  brethren  of  the  Lord  Jesus  must 
be  done  quickly.  Only  about  1,100  are  regarded  as  Christian 
and  many  of  these  are  only  nominally  so. 

3.  Work  for  the  Kanakas  of  Oceania,  imported  as  laborers 
mainly  into  Queensland  where  there  are  about  9,500,  is  far 
more  encouraging.  Though  not  aborigines  of  Australia,  a 
word  must  be  said  concerning  them.  In  Dr.  Paton's  autobiog- 
raphy an  undue  amount  of  space  is  taken  up  with  the  legal 
proof  that  these  immigrants  are  possessed  of  a  knowledge  of 
gods  and  idols.  Granting  this  universal  truth,  their  religious 
need  is  none  the  less  great.  While  most  of  these  laborers  have 
been  brought  from  cannibal  islands,  the  majority  of  them  had 
been  led  to  respect  the  missionary's  efforts  for  their  good; 
hence  they  have  been  more  open  than  when  at  home  to  relig- 
ious influences.  As  a  result  of  the  activity  of  the  Australian 
Baptists,  especially,  as  well  as  of  the  Presbyterians,  Lutherans 


l8o  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  Anglicans,  some  2,000  are  numbered  as  Christian  com- 
municants or  adherents.  Planters  have  been  so  struck  by  the 
unexpected  improvement  wrought  by  the  gospel  that  not  a 
few  of  them  are  financial  supporters  of  the  work. 

III.  New  Guinea.  —  i.  The  Dutch  Portion  of  the  island 
was  the  first  to  be  entered  by  the  missionary.  Two  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Gossner  Society  were  the  earliest  to  ar- 
rive —  in  1855,  but  the  only  organization  now  laboring  there 
is  the  Utrecht  Missionary  Society,  which  began  its  work  in 
1863.  At  five  stations  they  are  teaching  and  preaching,  being 
financially  aided  by  the  Dutch  Government  in  the  former  un- 
dertaking. The  work  is  arduous,  and  after  these  many  years 
the  number  of  communicants  in  their  New  Guinea  churches  is 
only  124.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  commercial  settlements 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  country  are  mainly  confined  to  those 
places  which  owe  their  largest  development  to  the  mission- 
aries. In  1895  the  Dutch  Resident,  after  officially  visiting 
their  schools,  endorsed  the  mission  very  highly.  In  philan- 
thropic lines  they  are  also  doing  a  blessed  work,  so  that  per- 
sons are  living  to-day  who  have  been  rescued  by  them  from 
mothers  who  had  been  on  the  point  of  burying  them  alive 
when  children. 

2.  British  New  Guinea  was  next  occupied.  S.  Macfarlane, 
LL.D.,  a  representative  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  on 
Lifu  of  the  Loyalty  group,  was,  in  1871,  assigned  to  the  most 
difficult  enterprise  of  opening  this  dangerous  field.  The  ven- 
erable Mr.  Murray  accompanied  him,  as  did  eight  Loyalty 
teachers,  others  following  later.  When  recruits  were  called 
for  and  the  grave  perils  of  the  expedition  were  pointed  out, 
every  student  in  their  institution  and  every  native  teacher  on 
the  island  offered  his  services.  "  Papua !  Papua !  "  became 
the  battle-cry  of  the  Loyalty  churches ;  and  wonderful  were 
the  meetings  preceding  the  sailing  of  these  pioneers,  some  of 
whom  were  shortly  to  be  martyred,  while  in  a  few  years  eigh- 
teen of  them  lay  in  the  Port  Moresby  cemetery. 

From  the  outset  until  the  present  time  the  London  Mission- 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  l8l 

ary  Society  has  accomplished  the  largest  results  in  New 
Guinea,  and  has  had  the  strongest  force.  The  place  it  has 
occupied  in  the  development  of  the  colony  is  thus  testified  to 
by  Sir  William  MacGregor,  who  has  recently  retired  from 
the  Lieutenant-Governorship  after  a  successful  administration 
lasting  more  than  ten  years :  "  The  London  Missionary  So- 
ciety as  the  pioneer  was  exposed  to  special  danger  and  hard- 
ship in  obtaining  a  footing  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
and  perhaps  much  more  so  in  maintaining  it.  It  was  more 
through  it  than  by  any  other  means  that  the  way  was  prepared 
for  the  founding  of  the  colony.  Before  annexation  it  had  a 
checkered  existence.  Many  teachers  died  of  illness ;  several 
were  killed  by  the  people  for  whom  they  had  come  to  work. 
In  the  history  of  the  mission  there  loom  out  conspicuously 
the  names  of  two  great  missionaries,  the  Rev.  Dr.  W.  S. 
Lawes  and  the  Rev.  James  Chalmers ;  the  former  typically  a 
man  of  thought,  the  latter  typically  a  man  of  action.  Each  of 
them  has  worked  for  and  among  the  Papuans  for  over  a  score 
of  years,  and  they  still  carry  on  work  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance." Since  Sir  William  penned  the  above,  Chalmers,  the 
wonderful  peace-maker  of  savage  New  Guinea,  after  living 
unscathed,  though  a  score  of  times  condemned  to  death,  has 
fallen  a  victim  to  his  desire  to  extend  the  gospel  to  the  regions 
beyond.  He  and  his  young  colleague,  Oliver  Tomkins,  were 
brutally  murdered  by  a  tribe  of  skull-hunters  on  the  Fly  River. 
Australian  Anglicans,  supported  by  the  Sydney  Australian 
Board  of  Missions,  began  in  1891  a  most  beneficent  work  on 
the  northeast  shore  of  the  colony,  aided  by  their  mission  ves- 
sel, Maclaren.  More  extensive,  however,  is  the  enterprise  of 
the  Australian  IVesleyans,  carried  on  in  the  two  groups  of  out- 
lying islands  off  the  eastern  and  northeastern  shores  of  New 
Guinea.  This  mission  was  likewise  opened  in  1891.  The 
pioneers  numbered  seven  foreign  missionaries  —  two  of  them 
women  —  and  fifty-three  native  teachers  from  Tonga,  Fiji 
and  Samoa.  The  Governor  of  the  colony  had  described  the 
people  "  as  being  amongst  the  worst  natives  of  New  Guinea," 


l82  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  the  sight  that  greeted  them  on  landing  —  skulls  of  men 
and  women  who  had  been  eaten,  exposed  in  front  of  the  houses 
in  various  villages  —  confirmed  his  judgment.  The  enter- 
prise began  with  a  larger  number  of  agents  and  with  more 
complex  appliances  for  work  than  had  been  used  in  any  of  the 
Wesleyans'  new  missions.  Results  seem  to  have  justified 
their  wisdom;  for  after  a  single  decade  they  report  thirty- 
three  churches,  nine  missionaries,  seventy-seven  catechists  and 
teachers,  twenty-four  local  preachers,  383  native  members, 
1,510  Sunday-school  scholars,  and  12,200  attendants  on  public 
worship.  Nearly  the  same  testimony  concerning  their  most 
helpful  services  to  the  colony  was  borne  by  the  Governor  as 
has  already  been  cited  in  connection  with  the  L.  M.  S. 

In  this  same  state  paper  of  Sir  William  MacGregor,  he  says 
of  the  operations  of  all  three  Societies :  "  The  lapse  of  time 
has  steadily  strengthened  the  conviction  that  mission  labor  is 
of  immense  value  and  importance  in  the  Possession.  The 
training  and  education  of  children  and  youth  is  practically  in 
the  hands  of  the  missions.  The  figures  will  give  a  fair  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  this  very  important  task  is  attended  to. 
The  example  of  the  regular  and  upright  life  of  the  mission- 
aries is  of  itself  an  object  lesson  of  great  significance.  The 
humanity  they  practise  in  regard  to  the  sick,  the  castaway, 
and  the  abandoned  child,  the  moral  force  by  which  they  exer- 
cise restraint  over  many  bad  characters  and  their  sympathy 
with  the  weak  and  suffering,  are  all  softening  and  ameliorat- 
ing influences  that  could  not  otherwise  have  been  supplied  to 
the  natives." 

3.  In  German  New  Guinea,  or  Kaiser  Wilhelms-Land,  two 
German  societies  are  laboring.  The  first  to  enter  was  the 
Neuendettelsau  Mission,  whose  pioneer,  Mr.  Flierl,  arrived  in 
1886.  Grundemann  has  described  most  vividly  the  early  ex- 
periences of  this  mission  as  its  missionaries  tried  to  win  the 
hostile  natives  and  thread  the  mazes  of  the  many  difficult 
dialects,  each  of  which  could  be  understood  by  only  a  few 
villages.     As   usual   in   such   circumstances   the   first   serious 


NEW    ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA,    NEW    GUINEA  1 83 

impressions  were  made  upon  the  score  of  youths  who  aided 
in  the  garden  and  household  and  thus  came  to  appreciate  the 
personal  and  family  life  of  Christianity.  To-day  the  society 
has  four  centers,  located  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  northern 
shore.  At  each  of  these  is  a  day-school,  and  ninety  pupils 
are  under  instruction.  Nine  communicants  are  the  nucleus  of 
those  better  things  that  are  being  earnestly  labored  and  prayed 
for.  The  latest  reports  picture  the  missionaries  as  opposed 
by  sorcerers,  and  aided  by  the  dreams  of  the  more  serious 
natives  and  by  the  tactful  ministration  of  missionary  women. 
Only  one  year  later,  in  1887,  the  Rhenish  Missionary  So- 
ciety came  to  the  country,  locating  at  the  center  of  the  northern 
coast.  Like  their  predecessors  the  missionaries  labored  in  the 
midst  of  difficulties  and  under  great  losses.  Even  the 
schools,  which  so  often  are  appreciated  when  evangelical  work 
is  not,  have  been  held  only  irregularly  and  have  been  oc- 
casionally closed  when  opposition  of  the  natives  has  necessi- 
tated it.  Happily  the  coming  of  a  medical  missionary  with 
surgical  ability  is  gradually  removing  suspicion  and  has  opened 
some  doors.  A  small  printing  press,  used  by  Mr.  Hanke,  has 
proven  useful  as  well  as  interesting  and  attractive.  But  in 
Kaiser  Wilhelms-Land,  as  in  the  rest  of  New  Guinea,  one  of 
the  greatest  foes  to  missionary  work  is  the  deadly  climate  that 
keeps  the  devoted  missionaries  on  furloughs,  if  it  does  not  kill 
them. 


VIII 

THE  MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO,  OR  MALAYSIA 

PART  I.— GENERAL 

1.  Groups  Described.  —  i.  Area  and  Ownership. — 
Malaysia,  lying  between  Southeastern  Asia  and  Australia,  is 
the  "  largest  and  most  important  system  of  island  groups  in 
the  world,  the  richest  in  every  respect."  If  Dutch  New  Guinea 
be  included,  —  it  is  treated  elsewhere,  —  it  has  an  area  of  about 
943,000  square  miles,  or  almost  one-third  that  of  the  United 
States.  Fully  seven  per  cent,  of  this  area  belongs  to  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  hence  the  Archipelago  is  often  called  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  It  is  thus  about  fifty-eight  times  as  large  as  Hol- 
land, the  mother  country.  Next  in  point  of  territory  come  the 
Philippine  and  Sulu  Islands,  as  extensive  almost  as  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  or  as  the  New  England  and  Middle  States, 
minus  New  York.  This  region,  so  long  under  the  Spanish 
Crown,  came  into  the  power  of  the  United  States  in  1898.  The 
native  Sultanates  of  Brunei,  and  Sarawak  of  Borneo,  now 
under  British  protection,  follow  with  53,000  square  miles,  while 
Great  Britain  has  31,000  in  North  Borneo  and  on  the  Island  of 
Labuan.  Portugal  owns  the  remaining  7,500  square  miles 
on  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Island  of  Timor,  and  the  adjacent 
islet,  Pulo  Kambing. 

2.  Physical  Features.  — "  This  Archipelago  is  traversed 
throughout  its  whole  extent  by  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
continuous  volcanic  belts  upon  the  globe."  Starting  from  the 
Philippines,  this  volcanic  range  extends  like  a  capital  J  to  the 
northwest  extremity  of  Sumatra.  These  peaks  and  craters  are 
seldom  more  than  100  miles  apart,  and  a  large  proportion  of 

184 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  185 

them  are  in  a  state  of  activity.  Islands  lying  within  the  curve, 
as  Borneo  and  most  of  the  Celebes,  are  without  any  signs  of 
recent  volcanic  action.  Many  of  the  mountains  are  lofty,  vary- 
ing from  5,000  to  nearly  14,000  feet  in  height. 

3.  Vegetation  is  naturally  very  luxuriant,  as  all  except  the 
Philippines  lie  within  the  tropics.  Where  undisturbed  by  man, 
most  of  the  islands  are  covered  nearly  to  the  tops  of  the  highest 
mountains  with  tropical  forests.  An  exception  to  this  rule  is 
noted  in  the  islands  near  enough  to  Australia  to  be  influenced 
by  its  heated  interior,  and  even  there  grassy  plains  are  dotted 
with  palms  and  thorny  thickets.  Further  exceptions  due  to 
human  agency  are  the  stretches  of  open  country  found  in  North 
Borneo,  Southern  Celebes,  and  some  of  the  Philippines  and  in 
the  densely  populous  sections  of  Java  and  Sumatra.  Rice, 
spices  of  many  varieties,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  all  kinds  of 
delicious  tropical  fruits  abound,  including  the  celebrated  du- 
rian,  which  has  a  detestable  odor,  but  possesses  a  flavor  so  ex- 
quisite that  Wallace,  thinks  it  worth  the  journey  to  the  East  to 
taste  it.  Among  the  valuable  trees  are  a  variety  of  palms,  san- 
dalwood, camphor,  teak  and  ebony.  These  forest  tracts  "  are 
crowded  in  addition  with  the  most  luxuriant  and  beautiful 
vegetation  of  other  sorts ;  creeping  and  climbing  plants,  gigan- 
tic ferns,  orchids  and  pitcher  plants,  flowering  plants  in  most 
gorgeous  hues,  and  sometimes  —  like  the  parasitic  Raf flesia  in 
the  island  of  Sumatra  and  elsewhere,  a  plant  consisting  of 
nothing  but  a  corolla  occasionally  three  feet  in  diameter  — 
attaining  an  enormous  size." 

4.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  more  uniformly  hot  and  moist 
than  that  of  any  other  region  between  the  tropics.  The  mean 
temperature,  except  in  the  higher  sections,  varies  from  88°  to 
90°  F.  The  midday  heat  is  powerfully  felt,  Wallace  saying  of 
Timor,  for  example,  that  exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
at  any  time  between  9  a.m.  and  3  p.m.  bUsters  the  skin  in  a 
few  minutes  almost  as  effectively  as  scalding  water.  The 
heat  is  tempered,  however,  by  sea  breezes  and  the  general  effect 
of  the  climate  is  not  oppressive  or  unhealthy. 


1 86  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

11.  The  Inhabitants.  —  The  two  chief  races  are  the  dark, 
or  Papuan,  and  the  brown,  or  Malay. 

1.  The  dark-skinned  Papuan  or  Melanesian  race  may  have 
originally  come  from  New  Guinea.  They  live  chiefly  in  the 
eastern  section  of  the  Archipelago,  and  are  represented  to  a  lim- 
ited extent  in  the  Philippines,  as  well  as  on  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes  and  other  islands.  Aside  from  their  darker  color  they 
are  also  distinguished  by  their  diminutive  size  and  curly  hair. 
They  are  quick,  vivacious  and  loud-mouthed,  as  the  Malays  are 
not, 

2.  The  Malays  are  the  more  numerous,  highly  developed, 
and  important  race.  Not  only  has  the  Low  Malay  —  the  Ital- 
ian of  the  East  —  become  the  lingua  franca  of  the  entire  Archi- 
pelago, but  Malay  domestic  customs,  animals  and  influence 
are  diffused  in  the  most  extraordinary  manner  throughout  the 
Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Malays  have  a  light  brown  com- 
plexion, straight  black  hair  and  are  three  or  four  inches  shorter 
than  the  average  Occidental.  The  sexes  dg  not  differ  much  in 
appearance. 

They  are  slow  and  circumlocutory  of  speech,  courteous  and 
dignified,  seldom  offensive  or  quarrelsome,  jealous  of  any  en- 
croachment on  personal  freedom,  and  possess  greater  energy 
and  acquisitiveness  than  other  natives  of  the  islands.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  are  gloomy,  indolent,  without  self-control, 
strongly  addicted  to  gambling  and  opium  smoking,  pitilessly 
cruel,  and  much  given  to  theft  and  piracy.  A  distinction,  how- 
ever, should  be  made  as  they  are  divided  into  two  great  groups, 
the  savage  and  the  semi-civilized.  The  head-hunting  Dayaks 
are  the  best  representatives  of  the  former.  They  have  no  litera- 
ture or  regular  government,  and  wear  only  the  scantiest  cloth- 
ing. Some  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  Sumatra  and  of  Borneo 
belong  to  the  same  group.  The  rest  are  semi-civilized,  possess 
written  languages,  and  a  limited  literature.  They  have  es- 
tablished governments,  and  some  form  of  religion,  and  are 
fairly  well  provided  with  weapons  and  tools. 

3.  The  Chinese  are  a  most  important  element  in  the  popula- 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  187 

tion  of  the  Archipelago,  numbering  nearly  half  a  million  in  the 
Dutch  possessions  alone.  Though  nowhere  liked  and  retaining 
their  own  customs,  they  largely  monopolize  trade  and  are  the 
miners  and  mechanics  of  the  islands.  They  number  about  100,000 
in  the  Philippines,  and  there  also  the  principal  industries  are  in 
their  hands.  Recently  opposition  has  been  openly  expressed 
to  them,  and  the  United  States  Government  has  made  certain 
restrictions  in  accordance  with  the  Chinese  policy  in  the  home 
land. 

4.  Europeans  and  those  assimilated  to  them  numbered  62,- 
061  in  1895,  of  whom  59,228  were  Dutch,  mostly  born  on  the 
islands.  They  live  under  nearly  the  same  governmental  condi- 
tions as  their  friends  in  Europe.  Java,  by  far  the  most  popu- 
lous of  the  Archipelago,  is  the  principal  seat  of  Dutch  power  in 
the  East.  While  their  introduction  of  the  "  culture  system," 
or  forced  labor  of  natives,  who  are  required  to  raise  coffee, 
sugar,  etc.,  has  been  much  criticised,  it  is  now  very  greatly 
lightened.  It  is  probably  true  that  to  this  system  "  much  finan- 
cial success  and  peaceful  administration  of  the  modern  Dutch 
Government  must  be  ascribed."  Its  officials  are  steadily  in- 
creasing their  efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  subject 
races.  In  1897  there  were  in  the  Dutch  possessions  12,000 
miles  of  railway,  300  post-offices  and  6,833  miles  of  telegraph 
lines. 

5.  Those  of  Arab  descent  occupy  a  different  position  in  the 
Archipelago.  Their  largest  influence  has  been  exerted  on  the 
Greater  Sunda  Islands,  whither  they  came  as  early  as  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Two  centuries  later  most  of  the  Malays  had 
been  converted  to  Mohammedanism,  and  Arab  influence  was 
paramount  until  the  Dutch  came,  when  their  power  was  broken. 
At  present  they  number  only  some  24,000,  mostly  priests  or 
merchants. 

6.  While  Spanish  power  was  crushed  by  the  war  with  the 
United  States  in  1898,  Spaniards  until  that  time  had  been  a 
very  influential  factor  in  the  development  of  the  Philippines 
with  their  seven  or  eight  million  inhabitants  dwelling  in  some 


168  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

i,2oo  islands.  Though  they  number  only  about  14,000,  these 
Spanish  friars  and  representatives  of  the  Home  Government 
have  been  the  source  of  the  slight  civilization  and  of  the  im- 
perfect form  of  Christianity  possessed  by  the  islanders. 

7.  One  cannot  foretell  what  the  influence  of  the  United 
States  will  be  upon  these  northern  islands,  as  they  have  not  yet 
been  fully  pacified;  but  it  will  doubtless  be  advantageous  to 
the  people  and  serve  as  another  object-lesson  to  Southeastern 
Asia,  perhaps  more  helpful  than  the  Dutch  Colonial  system  has 
been. 

8.  The  Netherlands  colonial  administration,  seen  in  its  best 
form  on  the  island  of  Java,  used  to  be  considered  the  best  illus- 
tration of  the  manner  in  which  the  semi-civilized  colony  should 
be  governed.  The  great  prosperity  resulting  to  the  mother  coun- 
try was  owing  mainly  to  a  scheme  already  alluded  to  and  in- 
troduced by  General  Van  den  Bosch.  "  Under  that  system  the 
natives  were  compelled  to  cultivate  part  of  the  ground  and  plant 
staple  articles  on  it,  whilst  the  produce  was  to  be  delivered  at 
a  fixed  price  to  the  magazines  of  the  Government,  and  from 
there  shipped  to  Europe  and  sold  by  the  Netherlands  Trading 
Company.  Although  this  system  brought  large  sums  into  the 
treasury  of  the  Netherlands,  a  bitter  opposition  existed  against 
it,  almost  from  the  beginning,  since  it  pressed  very  hard  upon 
the  natives.  As  time  went  on  the  opposition  gained  ground 
and  in  name  the  system  was  given  up  and  private  planters  ad- 
mitted." 

III.  Religion  of  the  Malaysians.  —  i.  In  the  Dutch 
possessions,  which  contain  most  of  the  population,  entire  lib- 
erty is  granted  to  all  faiths.  The  partial  failure  of  Christianity 
in  the  Archipelago  has  been  due,  perhaps,  to  the  dominant  pow- 
er, as  "  the  Dutch  have  until  lately  studiously  set  their  faces 
against  both  the  education  and  Christianizing  of  the  natives. 
Everything  that  tended  to  lessen  the  distance  between  the  two 
races  was  discouraged.  The  island  was  terra  clausa  and  the 
missionary  was  considered  to  have  hardly  more  claim  to  enter 
it  than  the  settler.     Even  as  late  as  the  second  or  third  decade 


THE   MALAY   ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  189 

of  this  [last]  century,  the  New  Testament  was  considered  a 
revolutionary  work,  and  Herr  Bruckner  who  translated  it  had 
his  edition  destroyed  by  the  Government.  All  this,  of  course, 
is  past,  but  so  also  is  the  opportunity  for  the  moral  and  in- 
tellectual improvement  of  the  native." 

The  remainder  of  the  population  is  mainly  Mohammedan 
which  is  making  a  greater  gain  among  the  heathen  element  than 
Christianity.  Moslem  zeal  is  kept  alive  by  Mecca  pilgrim- 
ages, 9,575  natives  having  gone  thither  in  1897.  Notwith- 
standing, the  Mohammedan  is  semi-pagan  still,  as  his  faith  has 
"  only  increased  the  number  of  supersensual  beings  to  whom 
he  prays.  To  Joseph  he  presents  offerings  that  he  may  obtain 
beautiful  children,  to  Solomon  for  honor  and  rank,  to  Moses 
for  bravery,  to  Jesus  for  learning.  The  ritual  of  his  religion  — 
and  his  whole  round  of  life  is  part  of  his  religion  —  is  intricate 
almost  beyond  conception  and  at  the  same  time  rigid  and  pre- 
cise." 

The  heathen  are  believers  in  a  primitive  animism,  or  a  devel- 
opment of  this.  Upon  ancestor  worship  and  a  Sivaitic  and 
Buddhist  substratum,  has  been  built  a  belief  in  or  worship  of 
fetishes,  skulls  and  bones,  trees,  animals  and  the  heavenly  bod- 
ies, besides  countless  spirits,  visible  and  invisible.  A  man's 
whole  life  "  is  enveloped  in  a  mesh  of  mystery ;  not  the  stars 
only  and  the  heavens  rain  influence,  but  from  every  object  a 
spiritual  emanation,  invisible  for  the  most  part  but  potent  and 
exhaustless,  flows  forth  to  him  for  blessing  or  for  curse." 

Before  the  introduction  of  Islam  the  faith  of  India  must  have 
had  great  power,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  enormous  remains 
of  temples  scattered  over  Sumatra  and  Java,  including  the  ruins 
of  the  great  temple,  Boro-Bodor,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
striking  in  the  world.  At  present,  however,  Brahmanism, 
Sivaism  and  Buddhism  are  only  believed  in  by  the  few  immi- 
grants that  are  scattered  over  the  islands,  or  else  they  are  in- 
corporated in  corrupted  fragments  into  other  faiths. 

2.  The  religious  condition  of  the  Philippines  deserves  spe- 
cial mention  in  view  of  their  recent  opening  to  Protestant  in- 


IQO  geography   of  PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

fluence.  The  "  Archipelago  presents  the  anomalous  instance  of 
a  country  which  has  been  conquered  as  much  by  ecclesiastical 
as  by  military  power.  Legaspi  landed  with  his  body  of  Au- 
gustinians,  who  were  followed  by  the  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans, and  later  —  but  not  until  the  main  work  had  been  ac- 
complished—  by  the  Jesuits."  Naturally,  therefore,  Roman- 
ism is  the  prevailing  faith  even  among  the  Malaysians.  Until 
1898  the  public  exercise  of  any  religion  except  the  Catholic 
was  forbidden.  The  clergy  numbered  about  1,200,  and  of 
these  500  were  Augustinians,  300  Jesuits  and  200  each  were 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans.  Unlike  Holland,  Spain  planted 
a  church  in  almost  every  village  and  some  2,000  schools  af- 
forded instruction  to  200,000  children.  It  is  probable  that  "  a 
larger  percentage  of  the  Christian  natives  can  read  and  write 
than  of  the  peasantry  of  Spain,  but  the  education  does  not  go 
far." 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  Mohammedanism,  it  must  be  added 
that  "  the  Christianised  Indians  have  in  a  manner  grafted  their 
new  religion  upon  their  former  cult.  Deeply  superstitious  and 
with  boundless  faith,  the  religious  orders  found  them  ready 
converts.  The  brilliant  processions  and  rich  robes  and  images 
of  the  Church  appealed  most  strongly  to  them.  Now  the  small- 
est village  has  its  fetes,  its  band  of  musicians  to  accompany 
the  processions,  and  plays  of  a  semi-religious  nature  are  very 
commonly  given.  The  priest  is  the  practical  king  of  the  vil- 
lage, and  does  not  regard  with  a  too  favorable  eye  the  spread 
of  knowledge  except  it  be  through  himself."  "  The  sale  of 
masses  and  indulgences,  the  distribution  of  crucifixes,  sacred 
dolls,  amulets  and  charms,  and  the  influence  upon  simple  souls 
of  the  confessional  and  absolution  have  all  been  used  to  make 
the  poor  '  Indios  '  submissive  to  authority  and  the  exaction  of 
tribute  for  the  State  and  the  Church."  While  the  above  state- 
ments were  written  before  the  recent  occupation  of  the  United 
States,  they  are  still  prevailingly  true. 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  I9I 

PART  II.— MISSIONARY 

I.  Protestant  Work  in  Dutch  Possessions.  —  It  is 
doubtful  whether  more  than  one  English-speaking  Christian 
out  of  a  hundred  could  give  any  adequate  account  of  the  re- 
markable missionary  operations  of  Dutch  and  German  Chris- 
tions  in  Netherlands  India.  Yet  these  islands  contain  a 
population  but  little  less  than  half  that  of  the  United  States  and 
not  differing  much  from  the  total  number  of  inhabitants  in  the 
"  neglected  continent  "  of  South  America.  Protestant  preach- 
ers were  sent  to  the  heathen  here  seventeen  years  before  the 
Pilgrims  landed  on  Plymouth  Rock ;  and  in  this  stronghold  of 
Islam  more  converts  have  been  won  to  Christianity  from  the 
camp  of  the  False  Prophet  than  in  any  other  field. 

1.  In  1900,  according  to  a  Dutch  authority,  Dr.  Callenbach, 
"  some  forty-one  European  clergymen  and  evangelists,  aided 
by  355  ordained  natives,  native  preachers  and  teachers,  work 
among  234,073  natives  of  the  undenominational  Protestant 
Church  of  the  East  Indies.  In  this  Church  the  clergymen  of 
the  parishes  are  chosen  by  a  committee  in  Holland  and  after- 
ward appointed  by  the  Minister  of  the  Colonies.  Their 
stipends  are  paid  by  the  Government."  Between  this  Colonial 
Church  and  the  missionary  societies  laboring  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  no  connection  seems  desirable,  mainly  because  the  colo- 
nial clergymen  are  rationalistic.  An  exception  occurs  in  the 
case  of  several  mission  churches  which  have  passed  from  the 
societies  to  the  care  of  the  Colonial  Church,  when  the  Govern- 
ment continues  the  missionaries  and  evangelists  already  em- 
ployed and  simply  pays  their  salaries. 

2.  Missionary  Societies  and  their  Fields.  —  The  larger 
share  in  the  evangelization  of  Netherlands  India  is  borne  by 
the  missionary  societies,  ten  of  them  being  Dutch,  and  two  Ger- 
man. The  Salvation  Army  also  has  a  small  constituency  in 
Java.  The  labors  of  other  societies  on  the  Malay  Peninsula 
and  adjacent  islands  are  not  here  under  review,  but  will  be  con- 
sidered in  Chapter  XII. 


192  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

If  we  follow  the  order  indicated  by  the  number  of  societies 
engaged,  Dutch  Borneo  must  first  be  taken  up.  The  pioneers 
were  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  who  labored  on  the 
west  coast  from  1839  to  1849.  At  present  only  the  Rhenish 
Society  is  found  here,  occupying  stations  on  the  southern  half 
of  that  great  island;  though  sub-agents  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  and  a  Plymouth  Brother  have  done  some 
temporary  work.  At  nine  centers  these  successors  of  men,  who 
have  endured  all  things  and  even  died  as  martyrs  at  the  hands 
of  head-hunting  Dayaks,  are  rendering  excellent  service.  Dif- 
ficulties are  great,  as  may  be  imagined  from  this  extract : 
"  Borneo  is  a  huge,  hot,  forest-covered  swamp,  so  thinly  peo- 
pled that  one  may  make  a  day's  journey  up  a  river  without 
meeting  a  single  village,  and  so  unsteadily  settled  that  the  vil- 
lage of  to-day  may  next  week  have  been  moved  hundreds  of 
.miles  away.  The  inhabitants  are  agricultural  nomads.  When 
a  ricefield  turns  out  less  fertile  than  was  expected  or  becomes 
exhausted,  the  farmers  take  their  houses  on  their  backs  and  go 
to  another  place.  There  is  a  special  call  for  work  among  the 
Dayaks  who  are  not  yet  Mohammedan,  but  who  are  in  danger 
of  becoming  such  through  the  influence  of  Mohammedan 
Malays  by  whom  they  are  surrounded."  The  1,900  members 
of  the  congregations  and  half  as  many  who  are  .communicants 
are  the  first-fruits  of  a  greater  multitude  that  is  sure  to 
follow. 

The  smaller  islands  claim  the  next  largest  number  of  mis- 
sionary societies  —  five  in  all.  These  lie  between  New  Guinea 
on  the  east  and  Java  and  Borneo  on  the  west.  It  is  in  this 
region  that  one  finds  the  largest  remnants  of  the  earlier  Dutch 
government  evangelization.  Here,  also,  in  the  Celebes  is  a 
church  at  Tondano  which  seats  2,000  built  of  wood  because  of 
the  frequent  earthquakes.  On  those  Sabbaths  when  the  Lord's 
Supper  is  celebrated  even  this  large  building  is  too  small  for 
the  number  who  gather.  Schools  in  the  Celebes  are  also 
largely  attended ;  and  Mr.  Alfred  Lea  says  that  among  the 
islands  of  Malaysia  there  is  "  no  spot  of  like  dimensions  whose 


THE   MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  I93 

people  are  so  well  taught,  so  intelligent  and  so  well  behaved; 
whose  villages  are  so  well  ordered  and  clean ;  whose  houses  are 
so  well  built  and  kept  in  such  good  repair ;  and  whose  women 
and  children  are  so  well  cared  for."  In  the  island  of  Sangir 
great  success  has  followed  a  method  thus  described :  "  The 
missionary  took  in  some  ninety  young  natives  with  whose  aid 
he  planted  gardens  of  nutmeg  trees  and  did  other  field  labor. 
During  the  season  when  such  labor  had  to  be  discontinued, 
they  got  thorough  instruction  and  were  trained  to  be  active 
and  practical  Christians  before  returning  to  their  families.  As 
these  natives  were  treated  by  the  missionary  as  his  own  chil- 
dren, he  had  the  privilege  of  educating  in  his  house  the  sons 
of  the  native  nobility,  who,  under  his  influence,  learned  to 
work,  a  thing  which  in  other  cases  they  absolutely  refused  to 
do."  Heathenism  has  nearly  vanished  from  this  island.  In 
others,  also,  excellent  and  wide-reaching  results  have  followed 
the  faithful  work  of  the  missionaries. 

Sumatra  likewise  has  representatives  of  five  missionary  so- 
cieties laboring  in  its  behalf.  Begun  by  a  Baptist  missionary 
in  1820  and  sealed  with  the  blood  of  Munson  and  Lyman,  who 
went  out  under  the  American  Board  in  1834  and  were  brutally 
murdered  soon  thereafter,  the  work  is  now  yielding  a  reward- 
ing harvest.  The  killing  of  seven  missionaries  of  the  Rhenish 
Society  in  Borneo  led  to  the  opening  of  their  mission  here,  by 
far  the  largest  in  Sumatra.  The  Inspector  of  the  Society,  Dr. 
Schreiber,  says  of  it :  "  Between  3,000  and  4,000  have  come 
out  of  Islam  and  we  have  very  great  hope  that  we  shall  win 
other  thousands.  Our  principal  work  there  is  to  keep  the 
heathen  back  and  see  that  they  do  not  become  Mohammedans. 
It  is  quite  a  mistake  to  consider  that  Islam  may  be  the  first  step 
from  heathenism  to  Christianity.  It  is  far  easier  to  win 
people  when  heathen,  than  after  they  become  Mohammedans." 
This  is  important  testimony  from  one  who  has  for  years  been  a 
missionary  among  Moslems.  He  elsewhere  writes :  "  I  do 
not  know  if  there  is  any  other  part  of  the  mission  field,  with 
the  exception  of  some  parts  of  Java,  where  such  large  num- 


194  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

bers  of  Mohammedans  have  been  won  for  Christ  as  among  the 
Battaks  of  Sumatra." 

Java  may  well  be  called  Holland's  "  treasure-chamber  "  and 
"  the  most  beautiful  pearl  in  the  crown  of  the  Netherlands." 
Yet  as  a  mission  field  it  stands  far  behind  what  it  ought  to  be 
among  the  Dutch  possessions.  Six  Dutch  societies,  besides  the 
Neukirchener  Mission,  which  in  its  origin  was  also  Dutch,  are 
carrying  on  a  variety  of  operations.  One  of  the  societies  is  the 
Java  Committee  which  emphasizes  education.  Its  crowning 
work  is  what  Van  Rhijn  calls  "  an  oasis  in  the  desert,"  the 
seminary  at  Depok  near  Batavia.  Here  are  trained  men  from 
various  parts  of  the  Archipelago.  Aside  from  the  varied  mis- 
sionary preparation  received,  mutual  contact  of  different  races 
has  proved  an  excellent  means  of  developing  character.  The 
Mennonites  have  been  exceptionally  blessed  in  their  stations  in 
the  northern  center  of  the  island,  and  the  Dutch  Bible  Society 
makes  this  the  headquarters  of  a  wide  dissemination  of  the 
Scriptures.  Sub-agents  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety have  also  circulated  many  copies  of  the  New  Testament 
or  portions  of  it.  The  most  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the 
operations  in  Java  is  the  fact  that  God  has  used  these  earnest 
efforts  to  the  conversion  of  nearly  20,000  Mohammedans. 
Granted  that  many  of  these  are  far  from  being  true  Christians, 
vast  multitudes  have  changed  their  faith  at  great  cost  and  with 
true  sincerity  of  heart.  These  miracles  of  grace  should  encour- 
age Christendom  to  persevere  and  enlarge  this  neglected  form 
of  missionary  service. 

3.  Dutch  Missionary  Methods.  —  Four  years  since  Dean 
Vahl  wrote  concerning  them :  "  As  the  Dutch  missionary  meth- 
ods are  somewhat  singular  and  are  best  represented  in  Java,  we 
may  make  some  mention  of  them.  The  old  practice  of  the  last 
centuries  is  totally  given  up  and  defended  by  nobody.  The 
work  is  done  by  the  preaching  of  the  Word,  but  the  work  is  not 
done  as  aggressively  as  in  the  most  evangelical  missions.  It 
seems  that  it  is  deemed  enough  to  open  a  place  for  the  preach- 
ing of  the  gospel,  to  preach  to  those  who  are  gathered  there, 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSL\  I95 

and  to  hope  that  thereby  knowledge  of  the  gospel  and  spiritual 
life  shall  by  and  by  be  spread  among  the  population.  Preach- 
ing in  the  bazaar  and  in  the  open  air  and  regular  house-to-house 
visitation  are  almost  unknown.  No  woman's  work  is  done  and 
it  seems  as  if  the  value  of  it  were  not  understood  at  all." 

Let  a  Hollander  present  other  considerations.  Dr.  Callen- 
bach  mentions  the  practical  training  of  candidates  before  send- 
ing them  forth  and  the  coming  forward  in  recent  years  of  uni- 
versity men.  These  "  mission  homes  "  men  are  taught  one  or 
more  Eastern  languages,  medicine  and  industrial  work.  On 
the  field  agriculture,  education,  medicine,  labor  for  colonial 
troops  and  Eurasians  as  a  help  toward  leavening  the  European 
population,  and  regular  conferences  of  representatives  of  dif- 
ferent societies,  are  forms  of  effort  which  are  certainly  worthy 
of  commendation,  with  the  possible  exception  of  learning  the 
language  of  one's  future  field  in  the  home  land. 

4.  Government  and  Missions.  —  This  is  a  burning  issue  in 
Holland,  as  well  as  among  the  missionaries  on  the  field.  In 
a  word  the  question  is  this,  "  whether  the  government  regula- 
tions which  have  in  view  the  material  and  intellectual  welfare 
of  the  native  population  are,  or  are  not,  favorable  to  the  work 
of  missions.  In  a  paper  read  at  the  quadrennial  Missionary 
Conference  in  Java  it  was  stated  that  *  it  is  expressly  stipulated 
by  the  Government  that  all  native  officials  must  be  Mohamme- 
dans, and  that  if  one  of  them  were  to  become  a  Christian  he 
would  be  at  once  removed  from  his  post.'  As  a  result  of  this, 
'  the  Dutch  Government  is  intimately  associated  with  Mohan? 
medanism  in  the  native  mind.'  Christian  missionaries  are  pro- 
hibited from  working  in  Netherlands  India  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  Government,  while  '  no  restriction  whatever  is 
placed  on  the  movements  of  Mohammedan  propagandists.' 
*  The  State  forbids  itinerating  missionaries  or  traveling 
preachers,  and  also  open-air  preaching.'  '  Permission  from  the 
Government  is  necessary  for  public  religious  worship  outside 
buildings  and  closed  places,'  a  permission  seldom  granted.  It 
is  feared  that  the  Government  may,  while  assisting  mission 


196  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

schools,  be  of  greater  help  '  to  the  Mohammedan  propaganda 
and  other  forces  which  are  opposed  to  Christianity;  for  there 
are  already  20,000  Mohammedan  schools  and  350  heathen 
Chinese  schools  in  Java  alone.'  On  the  other  hand,  the  num- 
ber of  schools  under  missionary  influence  is  considerable.  In 
the  directory  for  the  Straits  Settlements  and  Indo-China  for 
1897,  it  is  stated  that  there  are  in  Netherlands  India  '  502  gov- 
ernment vernacular  schools  and  578  private  vernacular  schools, 
which  give  instruction  to  upward  of  117,800  pupils.  The 
greater  number  of  their  private  schools  are  managed  by  the 
missionaries.'  " 

Apologists  for  the  Government  suggest  that  much  of  the 
present  prejudice  of  the  Church  against  the  colonial  adminis- 
tration is  due  to  past  history  rather  than  to  present  conditions. 
Thus  critics  are  wont  to  remind  the  public  that  the  Government 
once  printed  at  its  own  expense  an  edition  of  the  Koran,  while 
it  refused  for  a  time  to  permit  the  publication  of  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  ■ —  an  act  that  cannot  be  imputed  to  the  present 
administration.  Moreover,  critics  are  confronted  by  a  Dutch 
writer  with  a  very  practical  difficulty :  "  As  our  Government 
has  to  rule  with  a  limited  number  of  Europeans  over  many 
millions  of  natives,  as  much  as  possible  it  tries  to  maintain 
the  local  forms  of  government  and  jurisdiction.  These  are 
based  on  Mohammedan  principles,  with  the  result  that  native 
Christians  meet  many  difficulties  respecting  marriage,  inheri- 
tance, etc."  Such  obstacles  the  Government  is  now  more  ready 
and  able  to  surmount  than  formerly.  "  A  happy  change  for 
the  better  has  recently  occurred,  and  a  great  readiness  to  help 
has  taken  the  place  of  former  hostility.  Now  direct  and  in- 
direct assistance  is  given  to  mission  work  by  the  Government." 
After  all  is  said,  it  is  probably  true  that  one  of  the  greatest  ob- 
stacles to  the  evangelization  of  Mohammedans  in  that  field 
where,  in  spite  of  obstacles,  this  enterprise  has  been  so  signally 
blessed,  is  the  failure  of  the  authorities  to  adopt  a  more  Chris- 
tian policy  and  aid  still  further  in  the  evangelical  transforma- 
tion of  these  rich  possessions.     The  Christian  sentiment  of 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  I97 

Holland  is  gradually  awakening  to  the  duties  and  privileges  in- 
volved, and  there  is  hope  for  the  future. 

II.  Missions  in  British  Borneo.  —  With  the  exception  of 
the  Straits  Settlements  and  an  overflow  of  Bible  Society  agents 
to  parts  of  Netherlands  India,  the  only  British  workers  are 
found  in  the  northern  and  central-western  portions  of  this 
vast  island,  though  a  Bible  Society  agency  is  located  in  the  Phil- 
ippines. 

1.  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  sub-agents  and 
Plymouth  Brethren  are  doing  the  more  extensive  work  of  an 
itinerating  and  seed-sowing  enterprise,  as  contrasted  with  the 
fully  organized  and  intensive  operations  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph.  Here  the  Chinese  population  is  far  more 
approachable  than  the  Malay-speaking  section  of  the  com- 
munity. In  most  localities  the  people  are  so  few  that  the  Bible 
Society  has  found  "  it  quite  useless  to  keep  men  permanently 
on  the  same  spot ;  for  as  they  hardly  make  any  sales,  they  only 
get  discouraged  and  downhearted."  Yet  it  is  able  to  report 
that  while  sales  are  fewer  than  formerly,  better  work  is  prob- 
ably done,  especially  by  experienced  sub-agents  who  have  a 
good  grasp  of  the  language  and  can  talk  freely  with  the  peo- 
ple. The  efforts  of  the  Brethren  are  also  most  encouraging 
among  the  Chinese,  who  have  more  than  once  personally  aided 
them  in  it.  Their  persistent  visitation  among  the  people,  and 
the  wisdom  shown  in  meeting  the  arguments  of  Mohamme- 
dans, especially  the  influential  hadjis,  who  as  returned  Mecca 
pilgrims  are  the  great  propagandists  of  Islam,  are  noteworthy 
features  of  their  program. 

2.  It  is  to  the  missionaries  of  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  that  British  Borneo  is  almost  wholly  indebted 
for  a  difficult  and  fruitful  work  done.  In  accordance  with 
their  policy,  much  time  is  given  to  the  scattered  British  resi- 
dents in  this  far  away  land.  So,  too,  in  North  Borneo  most 
of  the  other  work  is  expended  on  the  Chinese,  a  worthy  excep- 
tion being  the  mission  among  the  Muruts  at  Kaningow.  There 
are  thousands  of  Muruts  throughout  the  island,  and  if  not  won 


198  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

for  Christianity,  they  are  Hkely  to  become  Mohammedan.  In 
the  western  mission,  besides  doing  much  for  the  Chinese,  the 
Dayaks  are  being  quite  extensively  reached.  It  is  not  an  easy 
task ;  for  as  Ratzel  has  pointed  out,  head-hunting  is  reHgious 
in  character,  being  connected  with  skull-worship,  and  it  is  hard 
to  destroy  that  tendency.  The  representatives  of  this  High 
Church  mission  are  often  amused  by  the  wide  discrepancy  be- 
tween their  ecclesiastical  ideals  and  actualities.  Thus  their 
chapels  are  nondescript  affairs  of  leaves,  grass  and  split  plank ; 
a  big  gong  must  be  sounded  Saturday  night  to  remind  the 
people  that  the  next  day  is  Sunday;  the  solemn  services  may 
be  interrupted  by  Methodistic  indications  of  approval  or  cor- 
rection of  statements ;  and  even  a  funeral  has  been  enlivened 
by  the  wife's  throwing  herself  in  the  grave,  while  the  words 
of  the  burial  service,  "  Blessed  are  the  dead  which  die  in  the 
Lord  "  are  drowned  by  the  shout  of  a  friend,  "  He  never  would 
have  died,  if  he  had  not  eaten  salt  fish." 

Educational  work,  carried  on  through  five  day-schools  and 
eight  of  a  higher  order,  and  medical  effort  are  the  methods 
most  acceptable  to  the  people.  How  much  the  latter  is  needed 
may  be  seen  from  this  account  of  native  doctors,  given  by  an 
S.  P.  G.  missionary :  "  They  look  wise,  chew  some  leaves,  spit 
on  the  people  who  are  sick,  rub  them  up  and  down,  tie  a  piece  of 
string  round  the  neck,  fasten  a  stone,  bone,  or  piece  of  stick 
to  the  end  of  it,  finally  ask  a  high  price  for  the  charm,  and  so 
get  on  and  are  sent  for  from  all  parts.  To  be  able  to  do  this, 
they  must  have  a  lot  of  dreams  in  which  the  Antoo  tells  them 
of  drug,  or  stone,  bone,  pig's,  dog's,  or  deer's  tooth  which  is 
in  a  certain  place  and  possesses  certain  properties.  .  .  .  Has 
any  one  a  pain  in  his  body?  the  manang  will  soon  show  you 
how  to  extract  the  cause.  He  passes  his  fingers  over  the  spot 
and  by  pinches  extracts  the  most  wonderful  things  —  porcu- 
pine quills,  fishbones,  teeth,  stones,  pieces  of  wood."  And  yet 
these  same  people  are  made  earnest  Christians  and  the  gospel 
is  increasing  in  power  among  them  as  the  years  go  by. 

3.     An  interesting  development  of  Chinese  Christianity  is 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  I99 

illustrated  by  the  recent  settlement  in  Borneo  of  a  number  of 
members  of  the  Methodist  Church,  North,  who  have  lately  mi- 
grated from  Foochow  to  this  island.  They  are  prominent 
church  workers  and  among  them  are  some  promising  young 
men  and  students.  Their  action  necessitates  visitation  by  the 
bishop  in  charge  and  may  lead  to  a  mission  there. 

III.  Missions  in  the  Philippines.  —  Here  almost  the  en- 
tire force  is  furnished  by  societies  from  the  United  States, 
which  in  the  three  years  of  government  occupancy  have  quickly 
risen  to  the  opportunity  offered  by  the  new  national  responsi- 
bility. At  least  nine  American  boards  are  on  the  field,  besides 
the  Salvation  Army  and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
As  the  Dutch  have  accepted  the  main  responsibility  of  evangel- 
izing their  island  possessions,  so  it  is  probable  that  the  societies 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent  will  consider  the  Philip- 
pines a  field  as  exclusively  American  as  is  Alaska.  "  Here 
then,  in  the  Providence  of  God,  is  America's  new  vocation ; 
there  is  no  mistaking  the  measure  of  it ;  there  should  be  no 
delay  in  assuming  it." 

I.  Spain's  Preparation  of  the  Soil.  —  How  important  a  civ- 
ilizing and  educative  factor  her  religious  representatives  were, 
has  been  seen  in  Part  I  of  this  chapter.  Yet  the  greatest  as- 
sistance that  they  have  rendered  the  cause  of  Protestant  mis- 
sions is  of  a  negative  character,  —  the  exhibition  of  an  unspir- 
itual  religion  which  has  had  little  or  no  moral  power  over  the 
people  and  not  much  more  over  the  majority  of  the  clergy. 
The  reader  should  remember  that  the  United  States  came  upon 
the  scene  two  years  after  the  native  revolt  of  1896,  whose  man- 
ifesto specifies  the  following  among  other  grievances :  "  Cruel 
extortion  by  the  friars  in  the  more  secluded  districts ;  wives 
and  daughters  ruined ;  the  marriage  ceremony  too  costly  a 
luxury  for  the  poor ;  the  dead  refused  burial  without  payment 
of  a  substantial  sum  in  advance ;  little  encouragement  for  in- 
dustry and  economy,  since  to  acquire  wealth  meant  to  become  a 
target  for  officials  and  friars  alike."  The  more  serious  speci- 
fications of  a  political  nature  added  fuel  to  the  flames  of  revo- 


200  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

lution,  and  made  the  overthrow  of  Spanish  domination  a  bless- 
ing, even  if  the  present  regime  is  unwelcome  to  many. 

2.  Efforts  of  the  United  States  are  necessarily  outside  the 
realm  of  religion,  yet  they  have  been  distinctly  helpful  to  mis- 
sions. The  late  President  McKinley  stated  very  fairly  what 
is  actually  being  accomplished  by  United  States'  occupancy : 
"  We  shall  continue,  as  we  have  begun,  to  open  the  schools,  to 
set  the  courts  in  operation,  to  foster  industry  and  trade  and 
agriculture,  and  in  every  way  in  our  power  to  make  these  people 
whom  Providence  has  brought  within  our  jurisdiction  feel  that 
it  is  their  liberty  and  not  our  power,  their  welfare  and  not  our 
gain,  we  are  seeking  to  enhance.  Our  flag  has  never  waved 
over  any  community  but  in  blessing.  I  believe  that  the  Fili- 
pinos will  soon  recognize  the  fact  that  it  has  not  lost  its  gift 
of  benediction  in  its  worldwide  journey  to  their  shores."  The 
sending  to  their  islands  of  nearly  a  thousand  school  teachers, 
Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic,  —  many  of  the  former  undertak- 
ing the  task  largely  as  a  Christian  and  missionary  measure,  — 
is  a  leaven  of  incalculable  value  as  affecting  the  most  impres- 
sionable portion  of  the  population. 

While  the  Government's  relation  to  the  Roman  Church  is  an 
impartial  one,  the  position  taken  is  well  voiced  in  an  inter- 
view between  Cardinal  Gibbons  and  Pope  Leo,  in  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  press  reports,  the  Pope  "  sees  the  necessity  of 
compelling  the  monastic  orders  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  sit- 
uation created  by  the  American  occupation.  Cardinal  Gibbons 
made  it  clear  to  the  Pope  that  unless  they  give  way,  the  Amer- 
ican Government  will  expel  them  altogether."  The  dispatch 
further  states  that  "  the  reports  received  at  the  Vatican  from 
the  Philippines  are  much  more  serious  than  those  received  from 
Cuba.  The  monks  in  the  Philippines  are  accused  of  all  kinds 
of  atrocities."  The  agitation  among  Romanists,  looking  to- 
ward the  substitution  of  American  or  Italian  ecclesiastics  for 
the  detested  and  immoral  Spanish  friars,  has  not  eventuated  in 
any  formulated  plan  at  time  of  writing,  though  a  recent  report 
from  Rome  states  that  the  superiors-general  of  the  orders  in  the 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  20I 

Philippines,  obedient  to  instruction  from  the  Vatican,  have  or- 
dered the  emigration  of  the  friars  to  Venezuela  and  Ecuador. 
That  the  type  of  Catholicism  in  the  Philippines  will  materially 
improve  thus  seems  evident. 

3.  Initiation  of  the  Protestant  Enterprise.  —  Remarkable 
progress  has  been  made  when  it  is  recalled  that  until  the  capture 
of  Manila  in  1898  "  a  naval  chaplain  was  not  even  allowed 
ashore  in  clerical  dress,  and  the  bodies  of  dead  soldiers  could 
only  be  carried  to  a  burial  place  in  a  common  carriage."  In 
the  short  space  of  three  years,  during  most  of  which  time  the 
pacification  of  the  islands  was  going  on  and  missionaries  could 
reside  only  in  Manila,  the  societies  above  alluded  to  have  es- 
tablished a  flourishing  work.  Schools,  churches,  the  social  ac- 
tivities of  the  Church  and  of  the  Christian  Association,  and  the 
services  of  the  Bible  Societies  —  especially  helpful  among  a 
community  where  ability  to  read  has  coexisted  with  a  prohibited 
Bible,  have  come  into  being  with  most  surprising  rapidity. 
Even  native  preachers  are  ministering  to  Filipino  Protestant 
churches ;  though  at  this  early  stage  these  Christians  have  not 
attained  the  humility  requisite  to  make  them  willing  to  go  about 
from  house  to  house  for  personal  work  or  for  Bible  and  tract 
distribution. 

The  most  hopeful  aspect  of  this  recent  enterprise  is  not  so 
much  the  ready  welcome  of  evangelical  truth  and  its  repre- 
sentatives, as  the  splendid  object  lessons  afforded  by  these 
islands  in  the  matter  of  comity  and  essential  union  among  Prot- 
estant forces  of  varying  names.  A  discussion  of  the  situation 
by  representatives  of  the  various  boards  in  the  Philippines 
eventuated  in  their  agreeing  on  the  following  propositions : 
(i)  That  the  field  be  so  divided  that  each  mission  shall  assume 
the  responsibility  of  the  evangelization  of  a  certain  well-defined 
district.  (2)  That  all  missions  adopt  a  common  name  for  the 
Filipino  churches  that  shall  be  raised  up,  "  La  Iglesia  Evan- 
gelica  Filipina,"  placing  in  brackets  when  necessary  the  name 
of  the  mission  under  which  it  has  been  fostered,  —  for  exam- 
ple, "La  Iglesia  Evangelica  de  San  Fernando  (Mision  Meto- 


202  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

dista  Episcopal)."  (3)  That  the  church  be  so  developed  as 
to  produce  and  promote  practical  unity.  (4)  That  conferences 
be  had  among  the  missions  in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  dupli- 
cation of  general  work,  such  as  presses,  newspapers,  colleges, 
etc.  In  order  to  solve  problems  suggested  by  the  third  and 
fourth  propositions,  a  federation  of  missions  and  churches  was 
proposed  and  agreed  to  in  April,  1901.  It  is  known  as  "  The 
Evangelical  Union  of  the  Philippine  Islands."  Already  the 
field  has  been  apportioned  among  the  boards  present,  with 
Manila  as  a  common  ground ;  and  friction  and  rivalry  seem 
likely  to  be  sunk  in  a  common  enthusiasm  for  Philippine  evan- 
gelization. Another  advantage  of  the  Union  is  anticipated 
from  its  annual  meeting,  when  it  is  proposed  that  there  be  con- 
vened a  large  conference  of  all  the  Protestant  workers,  both 
native  and  foreign.  Not  only  will  cooperation  be  furthered  by 
this  yearly  gathering,  but  the  spiritual  life  and  organized  activ- 
ities of  Protestantism  will  gain  force  by  this  annual  Pentecost. 
4.  What  of  the  Future f  —  No  better  augury  for  a  very 
blessed  one  could  be  looked  for  than  the  Union  just  named. 
Yet  problems  are  pressing  in  spite  of  the  first  eagerness  of  the 
Filipinos  to  enter  into  the  evangelical  fold.  A  two  years'  ex- 
periment has  shown  that  native  priests  do  not  meet  the  need 
said  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  friars  from  Spain  had 
crowded  the  natives  out.  In  many  respects  they  have  been  as 
corrupt  and  open  to  criticism  as  their  predecessors,  except  in 
political  matters ;  and  the  experiment  seems  to  have  proven 
that  after  all  it  is  Catholicism  as  it  exists  in  the  islands  that  is 
found  wanting,  rather  than  its  Spanish  representatives. 
Whether  a  purer  priesthood  from  abroad  will  satisfy  the  people, 
remains  to  be  seen.  Meanwhile,  a  series  of  articles  has  recently 
appeared  in  an  ecclesiastical  paper  of  Manila  entitled,  "  Precau- 
tions against  the  Pest,"  in  which  the  believing  faithful  are 
warned  against  the  horrors  of  the  evangelical  faith  and  people. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  movement  has  recently  been  started  by 
the  Federal  Party,  which  looks  toward  the  espousal  of  evangel- 
ical truth,  the  maintenance  of  the  Bible  as  the  moral  code  for 


THE    MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO,    OR    MALAYSIA  2O3 

mankind,  and  the  casting  off  of  priestly  domination  and  blind 
superstition  of  every  sort.  A  Presbyterian  missionary  has  been 
repeatedly  asked  to  address  large  audiences  assembled  under 
the  auspices  of  this  movement,  and  has  enjoyed  the  utmost 
freedom  in  proclaiming  to  them  the  simple  gospel  of  Christ. 

That  much  friction  is  to  be  expected,  no  matter  what  plan 
of  disposing  of  the  estates  of  the  Church  and  of  its  priesthood 
is  decided  upon,  and  that  the  people  will  feel  aggrieved  in  the 
disposition  of  church  buildings,  etc.,  is  a  foregone  conclusion. 
It  is  also  evident  that  many  would  prefer  to  have  missionaries 
from  some  other  Protestant  land  than  that  of  their  conquerors. 
Yet  the  present  outlook  is  full  of  hope.  Thus  far  scarcely  a 
thought  has  been  given  to  any  but  the  Filipinos  and  the  army 
and  navy,  together  with  other  foreigners  in  the  archipelago. 
The  grave  problem  of  evangelizing  the  inland  tribes,  and  es- 
pecially those  that  are  Mohammedan,  must  soon  be  met.  One 
officer  has  taken  the  position  of  Great  Britain  and  Holland  with 
regard  to  his  territory,  and  has  desired  an  opportunity  for 
American  justice  and  kindness  to  produce  their  effect  before 
Islam  is  antagonized  by  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  Per- 
haps the  large  enterprise  of  evangelizing  Spanish-speaking 
Romanists  will  engage  all  the  forces  before  Mohammedan  sec- 
tions can  be  entered  very  fully,  and  so  the  Government  may 
have  an  opportunity  to  do  its  desired  preparatory  work. 


IX 
JAPAN   AND   ITS   OUTLYING   ISLANDS 

PART  I.  — GENERAL 

Many  facts  conspire  to  make  this  country  the  most  fasci- 
nating, though  perhaps  not  the  neediest,  of  all  mission  lands. 
Natural  beauty  exceeding  that  of  most  countries,  a  history  of 
deep  interest  to  all  scholars,  a  people  attractive  beyond  almost 
any  other  nationality,  and  such  a  speedy  assimilation  of  culture 
as  has  never  been  w^itnessed  in  any  land,  are  included  in  these 
facts. 

I.  The  Kingdom  of  the  Rising  Sun.  — This  name  is  the 
translation  of  the  Chinese  characters,  two  of  which  are  found 
in  the  common  Japanese  designation  Dai  Nippon  —  Great  Sun- 
origin. 

I.  Location  and  Leading  Islands.  —  The  Empire  has  with 
much  reason  been  called  the  Great  Britain  of  the  Orient,  not 
merely  because  its  inhabitants  are  liable  to  become  a  great  sea 
power  and  an  important  element  in  Asia's  development,  but  also 
because  it  contains  almost  the  same  area  as  the  United  Kingdom 
and  is  the  outlying  section  of  Eastern  Asia,  just  as  its  Western 
counterpart  is  of  Europe.  Within  the  limits  of  the  Empire  are 
included  five  large  islands  and  some  2,000  smaller  ones.  They 
extend  along  the  Asiatic  coast  through  twenty-eight  degrees  of 
latitude,  from  the  northernmost  island  of  the  Kurile  group,  just 
off  Kamchatka,  to  the  southern  limit  of  Formosa,  lying  within 
the  tropics.  The  large  islands  are  Yezo,  the  northernmost; 
Hondo  or  Japan  proper,  three  times  the  size  of  Yezo ;  Kyushu, 
south  of  Hondo ;  and  Shikoku,  the  southwestern  island  of  the 
204 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  205 

main  group.  Its  new  possession,  the  large  island  of  Formosa, 
will  be  spoken  of  later.  The  island  nearest  the  mainland,  Tsu- 
shima, lies  only  twenty-five  miles  from  Korea. 

2.  Outstanding  Physical  Features.  —  Western  nations  can 
hardly  think  of  Japan  without  recalling  the  omnipresent  picture 
of  Mt.  Fuji.  This  beauiful  truncated  cone,  towering  magnif- 
icently above  all  other  mountains  to  an  elevation  of  more  than 
12,000  feet,  is  characteristic  of  Japanese  topography.  While 
there  are  occasional  plains,  the  entire  country  is  hilly  or  moun- 
tainous. Since  the  largest  islands  are  narrow,  varying  from 
100  to  200  miles,  it  naturally  follows  that  there  are  no  extensive 
rivers.  It  is  also  true  that  Japan  has  no  lakes  of  importance, 
save  Biwa.  This  lack,  however,  is  compensated  for  by  the 
possession  of  many  lakelets  of  surpassing  beauty,  the  delight 
of  world  tourists.  Hardly  twelve  per  cent,  of  Japan's  total 
area  is  cultivated,  owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
country.  The  ranges  are  jagged  in  appearance  and  are  punc- 
tuated by  many  active  volcanoes  which  occasionally  emit  fire 
and  molten  lava.  The  mountainsides  are  covered  in  most  cases 
with  a  variety  of  beautiful  trees.  It  is  claimed  that  no  other 
country  in  the  East  is  so  well  supplied  with  useful  timber.  On 
Yezo  alone  thirty-six  varieties,  including  oak,  are  to  be  found, 
and  "  the  whole  of  the  Hokkaido  is  one  huge  lumber  yard." 
Among  the  trees  are  those  furnishing  camphor,  most  of  the 
world's  supply  being  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Japan. 

There  are  no  large  farms  to  be  seen.  Little  plots  not  much 
larger  than  Occidental  vegetable  gardens,  cultivated  most  as- 
siduously by  both  women  and  men,  take  the  place  of  our  more 
extensive  fields.  A  feature  of  the  landscape  which  the  trav- 
eler can  never  forget  is  due  to  Japanese  enterprise  and  the  lack 
of  level  land.  Far  up  the  mountainside,  sometimes  to  the  very 
summit,  is  built  a  giant  staircase  composed  of  successive  arti- 
ficial platforms  where  most  luxuriant  crops  are  raised,  the 
water  descending  from  one  level  to  the  next  until  it  finally 
reaches  the  sea.  Rice  is  the  prevailing  production  and  more 
can  be  raised  per  acre  here  than  elsewhere  in  the  world.     About 


206  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

half  of  the  cultivated  land  is  covered  with  this  grain.  In  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  country,  the  cultivation  of  the  tea  shrub 
and  mulberry  trees,  necessary  in  the  silk  industry,  gives  great 
beauty  to  the  landscape,  with  its  bevies  of  women  busily  en- 
gaged in  the  culture. 

Japan  should  be  called  the  Flozvery  Kingdom  rather  than 
China,  as  at  certain  seasons  the  whole  country  is  aflame  with 
color.  Aside  from  its  world-famed  cherry  blossoms  and  the 
chrysanthemum,  the  national  flower,  lotuses,  lilies  of  every 
variety,  and  wild  flowers  in  profusion  are  present  almost 
throughout  the  year. 

Unlike  Korea  and  China,  Japan  is  admirably  provided  with 
highways  and  bridges,  narrow  indeed,  but  in  the  main,  kept  in 
excellent  repair.  Railroads  are  rapidly  increasing  in  num- 
ber; while  every  grade  of  steamer,  from  a  launch  to  ocean- 
going steamships,  furnish  easy  communication  along  the  coast. 

3.  No  account  of  Japan  can  omit  mentioning  its  famous 
Inland  Sea.  Extending  between  the  main  island  and  its  two 
southern  neighbors,  it  presents  a  combination  of  attractions  that 
is  nowhere  surpassed.  At  places  one  is  reminded  of  the  lower 
Hudson,  while  elsewhere  the  Thousand  Islands  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence are  eclipsed.  Lake  Lucerne  and  Ireland's  Killarney  are 
also  suggested  as  parallels ;  but  none  of  these  have  that  added 
charm  of  wooded  or  terraced  hills  dotted  with  toy  hamlets 
and  alive  with  the  strange  activities  of  the  Far  East. 

4.  Nature's  Perils.  —  This  highly  favored  land  is  subjected 
to  a  variety  of  catastrophes,  which  cannot  be  guarded  against 
by  any  human  foresight.  It  is  remarkably  volcanic,  and  fre- 
quent eruptions  have  always  wrought  great  havoc.  The  latest 
disaster  of  this  sort  occurred  in  1888  when  Bandai  San,  which 
had  been  quiescent  for  more  than  a  millennium,  suddenly  broke 
forth,  blowing  off  one  side  of  the  mountain  and  covering  the 
country  with  debris.  Many  villages  were  destroyed  and  lives 
lost. 

Earthquakes  are  more  frequent  in  Japan  than  in  almost  any 
other  section  of  the  globe.    Government  records  show  an  aver- 


JAPAN    AND   ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  207 

ag-e  of  about  one  a  day.  While  most  of  these  are  not  notice- 
able, seismic  disturbances  have  made  the  Empire  famous.  Thus 
in  1 89 1  fully  22,000  persons  were  killed  or  wounded  by  an 
earthquake,  besides  more  than  a  million  who  were  left  homeless 
thereby.  Destructive  tidal  waves,  which  are  probably  the 
results  of  seismic  movements  in  the  ocean  are  another  terror 
dreaded  by  the  Japanese.  About  30,000  people  on  the  north 
coast  of  Hondo  lost  their  lives  from  a  high  wave  in  1896. 

The  Oriental  cyclone,  known  as  the  typhoon,  is  a  yearly 
visitant  on  the  Japanese  coast.  Houses  are  overthrown,  vil- 
lages along  the  coast  are  likely  to  be  inundated,  and  shipping  is 
an  easy  victim  to  these  devastating  winds. 

5.  Climatic  Conditions. — The  prevailing  impression  made  by 
Japan's  climate  is  that  of  dampness.  Winter  and  summer 
alike,  the  rains  and  moisture  resulting  from  its  situation  in 
the  ocean  make  it  somewhat  disagreeable  to  the  Occidental. 
So  far  as  temperature  is  concerned,  the  main  islands  do  not 
suffer  from  cold ;  though  a  moderate  degree  of  coldness  is  more 
noticeable  than  in  dry  climates,  or  where  the  houses  are  pro- 
vided with  suitable  heating  conveniences.  Most  writers  on 
the  subject  emphasize  the  lack  of  ozone  in  the  air.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  only  about  one-third  of  the  amount  present  in  most 
countries  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  Japanese  atmos- 
phere. As  a  result  of  the  trying  heat  of  summer,  the  lack  of 
ozone,  and,  as  some  contend,  of  electricity  in  the  air,  new  mis- 
sionaries often  suffer.  Indeed  one  must  learn  to  take  life  less 
seriously  than  the  pressing  demands  of  Europe  and  America 
require.  Lung  diseases,  dysentery,  and  rheumatism  are  a  men- 
ace to  the  health  of  new  comers,  and  Japanese  climate  is  some- 
what notorious  as  inducing  breakdowns  where  one  is  inclined 
to  nervousness.  A  redeeming  feature  of  the  climate  is  the  fact 
that  unlike  India,  Japan  favors  the  children  of  Western  parent- 
age, so  that  they  do  not  need  to  be  sent  to  the  home  lands  at 
an  early  age. 

II.  The  Japanese.  —  People  of  the  West  have  become  tol- 
erably familiar  with  a  class  of  Japanese  residing  in  their  midst 


208  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

which,  as  compared  with  the  Chinese  seen,  gives  wrong  im- 
pressions of  the  two  countries.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in 
the  case  of  the  Chinese,  nearly  all  of  those  met  with  belong  to 
the  lower  or  lowest  classes.  The  Japanese  in  America  and 
Europe,  on  the  contrary,  are  with  the  exception  of  laborers  and 
artisans  on  the  Pacific  Slope,  representative  of  the  middle  or 
higher  classes  of  the  Empire  and  are  here  almost  universally 
for  the  sake  of  education. 

I.  The  origin  of  this  interesting  people,  who  in  1898  num- 
bered nearly  forty-four  millions,  exclusive  of  Formosa  and  the 
Pescadores,  is  a  controverted  question.  A  casual  acquaintance 
with  the  masses  in  Japan  enables  one  to  recognize  two  general 
types.  One  is  that  of  the  better  elements  in  the  community, 
whose  faces  are  oval  with  well  chiselled  features,  and  whose 
general  appearance  is  refined  and  attractive.  The  lower  classes 
in  society,  on  the  contrary,  have  faces  anything  but  interesting. 
They  are  round  and  flattened,  the  eyes  are  oblique  and  almost 
level  with  the  face,  while  the  nose  is  straight  and  upturned  at 
the  roots.  These  types  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  on  one  hand, 
and,  on  the  other,  of  the  laboring  classes,  are  variously  ac- 
counted for.  Some  ethnologists  contend  for  two  streams  of 
immigration.  The  first  is  from  Northern  Asia  and  is  supposed 
to  have  reached  Japan  via  Korea,  or  Sakhalin,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  Siberia  by  a  channel  only  five  miles  wide.  The  other 
stream  of  immigrants,  according  to  this  theory,  came  from  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  having  drifted  in  their  boats  on  the  cur- 
rent of  the  Black  Stream.  Another  school  claims  that  the  dif- 
ferences noted  do  not  mark  different  race  stocks,  but  that  both 
are  variants  of  a  common  Mongolian  origin.  These  immi- 
grants from  the  mainland  may  have  come  from  the  North  or 
from  Central  China,  and  hence  the  differing  physical  charac- 
teristics. As  this  latter  view  is  championed  by  such  author- 
ities as  Professor  Rein,  it  is  perhaps  more  commonly  accepted 
than  the  first  theory. 

Aside  from  the  two  types  just  mentioned,  there  is  a  third  and 
widely  different  element  in  the  North,  the  Ainu.     This  most 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  2O9 

interesting  though  decaying  people  are  probably  the  survivors 
of  the  aborigines,  and  are  found  on  the  northern  island  of  Yezo. 
They  are  estimated  to  number  about  17,000  only.  Professor 
Chamberlain  says  of  them :  "  They  are  the  hairiest  race  in  the 
whole  world,  their  luxuriantly  thick  black  beards  and  hairy 
limbs  giving  them  an  appearance  which  contrasts  strangely 
with  the  smoothness  of  their  Japanese  lords  and  masters.  They 
are  of  a  sturdy  build,  and  distinguished  by  a  flattening  of  cer- 
tain bones  of  the  arm  and  leg  —  the  tibia  and  humerus  —  which 
has  been  observed  nowhere  else  except  in  the  remains  of  some 
of  the  cave-men  of  Europe.  The  women  tattoo  mustaches  on 
their  upper  lips  and  geometrical  patterns  on  their  hands.  Both 
sexes  are  of  a  mild  and  amiable  disposition,  but  are  terribly 
addicted  to  drunkenness.  They  are  filthily  dirty,  the  practice 
of  bathing  being  altogether  unknown.  Their  religion  is  a 
simple  nature-worship.  The  sun,  wind,  ocean,  bear,  etc.,  are 
deified,  and  whittled  sticks  are  set  up  in  their  honor.  The 
bear,  though  worshiped,  is  also  sacrificed  and  eaten  with 
solemnities  that  form  the  most  original  and  picturesque  feat- 
ures of  Ainu  life." 

2.  The  most  striking  impression  made  by  the  Japanese  upon 
the  traveler  as  he  lands  at  one  of  their  ports  and  is  rowed  by  a 
man  who  is  an  aggregation  of  knotted  muscles  to  the  shore, 
there  to  be  whirled  away  by  a  fellow-countryman  in  an  exag- 
gerated baby  carriage  at  a  pace  excelling  that  of  an  ordinary 
horse,  is  one  of  admiration  for  their  physical  development.  The 
boatman  and  puller  of  the  kuruma  are  not,  however,  repre- 
sentative of  the  nation  as  a  whole;  for,  while  they  and  the 
peasants,  including  their  women,  have  great  powers  of  endur- 
ance and  much  strength,  physical  weakness  characterizes  the 
upper  and  middle  classes. 

3.  Socially  considered  the  race  is  a  most  charming  one.  Ex- 
ternally happy  and  smiling,  and  polite  to  a  distressing  degree, 
they  are  in  addition  unusually  gregarious.  Well-known  illus- 
trations of  this  instinct  are  the  numerous  parties  formed  dur- 
ing cherry-blossom  time,  and  on  other  occasions  of  leisure 


^iO  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

when  multitudes  gather  to  drink  tea  and  enjoy  social  inter- 
course. While  the  position  assigned  to  woman  is  far  from 
ideal,  her  condition  in  Japan  is  much  higher  than  in  other 
lands  and  with  the  new  education  she  is  rising  to  the  place 
where  her  social  influence  is  being  felt. 

4.  Another  marked  characteristic  of  this  people  is  their  un- 
usual mental  capacity.  They  have  a  genuine  thirst  for  knowl- 
edge, and,  wholly  unlike  the  Chinese,  study  for  the  sake  of 
learning  itself.  At  the  close  of  1897,  however,  when  the  num- 
ber of  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen  was 
7,730,441,  less  than  fifty-five  per  cent,  of  that  number  were 
under  instruction  of  all  ages  and  grades  of  advancement. 
Western  acquaintance  with  young  Japanese  students  is  a  suffi- 
cient commentary  upon  their  rare  intellectual  gifts ;  while  the 
achievements  of  Japanese  professors  in  botany,  biology  and 
seismology  are  indications  of  the  practical  value  of  the  new 
education.  They  will  undoubtedly  furnish  some  of  the  greatest 
scholars  and  specialists  of  the  twentieth  century. 

5.  Their  ccsthetic  development  has  already  far  advanced.  It 
is  true  that  hitherto  it  has  been  normal  only  in  the  direction  of 
appreciation  and  devotion  to  natural  beauty.  When  it  concerns 
art,  Chinese  conventionalism  has  been  predominant.  This, 
however,  is  rapidly  changing  as  higher  ideals  are  being 
grasped.  Already  the  finest  embroideries  and  cloisonne  work 
are  the  production  of  Japanese  artisans,  possessed  of  a  remark- 
able degree  of  taste. 

6.  If  one  seeks  for  the  secret  of  Japan's  recent  successes,  it 
will  be  found  to  have  its  root  in  an  all-pervasive  patriotism; 
some  one  has  called  it  almost  fanaticism.  "  From  earliest  in- 
fancy it  is  instilled  into  the  minds  of  the  children  and  there  is 
not  one  of  the  little  ones  in  whose  heart  his  country  has  not  the 
first  place.  A  native  writer  has  expressed  the  sentiments  of 
every  Japanese  thus :  '  My  native  land !  Everywhere  and  al- 
ways the  first  affections  of  my  heart  and  the  first  labor  of  my 
hands  shall  be  thine  alone.'  "  During  part  of  the  last  decade, 
this  patriotic  fervor  and  the  keen  appreciation  of  what  they 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  211 

deemed  national  wrong  inflicted  upon  them  by  Western  nations, 
—  especially  in  the  ex-territorial  regulations,  —  occasioned  an 
exaggerated  nationalistic  feeling  with  a  decidedly  anti-foreign 
coloring. 

7.  Idealism  is  another  characteristic  of  the  Japanese.  It  is 
nourished  by  the  past  and  the  anticipated  future  of  their  own 
national  existence,  and  especially  by  the  example  of  early 
heroes.  These  they  worship  in  both  a  literal  and  figurative 
sense.  Schoolbooks  and  other  literature  laud  the  deeds  of 
noted  individuals,  and  all  classes  in  society  are  affected  by  men 
of  national  reputation.  Mr.  Gary  quotes  from  a  noted  Japa- 
nese, Mr.  Yokoi,  one  unfortunate  result  of  this  usually  helpful 
characteristic.  "  The  quiet,  peaceful  performance  of  daily 
duties,  small  and  unheroic,  but  so  necessary  for  the  highest 
social  welfare,  seemed  to  fall  into  comparative  neglect."  The 
same  author  likewise  repeats  with  approval  Professor  G.  T. 
Ladd's  opinion :  "  It  is  difficult  to  secure  from  natives  friend- 
ship and  devotion,  or  even  much  steadfast  interest,  for  any  one 
out  of  whom  they  cannot  make  and  maintain  a  hero." 

8.  Like  men  of  every  nation,  this  interesting  people  have 
their  weaknesses.  Thus  as  yet  they  are  not  possessed  of  great 
inventive  power,  being  rather  at  an  imitative  stage.  So  too, 
they  are  lacking  in  steadiness  of  purpose ;  though  the  charge 
of  fickleness  is  not  wholly  maintained,  and  is  accounted  for 
largely  by  the  necessary  experiments  required  in  the  rapid 
progress  of  the  last  fifty  years.  Percival  Lowell  has  exag- 
gerated facts  in  his  statement  that  they  are  without  the  idea  of 
personality.  As  a  matter  of  fact  individual  responsibility  is  not 
keenly  felt,  which  is  about  as  far  as  that  criticism  can  be  pressed. 
Missionaries  have  with  some  reason  charged  them  with  in- 
gratitude, and  it  is  true  that  many  of  those  who  have  been 
greatly  indebted  to  their  foreign  teachers,  have  turned  against 
them  with  little  thought  of  previous  obligations.  It  is  also 
stated  with  some  reason  that  the  Japanese  regard  for  life  is 
not  sufficiently  cultivated.  Statistics  of  suicide  show  the  low 
estimate  which  the  individual  places  upon  man's  most  precious 


212  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

possession.  Such  factors  as  heat  and  discomfort  or  the  failure 
of  the  rice  crop,  increase  the  number  of  suicides.  Other  mat- 
ters affecting  moraHty  are  mentioned  below. 

III.  Japanese  Language  and  Literature.  —  i.  The  af- 
filiations of  the  Japanese  language  are  still  a  matter  of  dispute. 
One  of  the  foremost  authorities  on  the  subject,  Professor 
Chamberlain,  writes :  "  It  is  doubtful  to  what  family  of  lan- 
guages the  Japanese  belongs.  In  structure,  though  not  to  any 
appreciable  extent  in  vocabulary,  it  closely  resembles  Korean ; 
and  both  it  and  Korean  may  possibly  be  related  to  Mongol  and 
Manchurian,  and  may  therefore  claim  to  be  included  in  the  Al- 
taic group.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Japanese  is  what  philologists 
term  an  agglutinative  language ;  that  is  to  say,  it  builds  up  its 
words  and  grammatical  forms  by  means  of  suffixes  loosely 
soldered  to  the  root  or  stem,  which  is  invariable." 

2.  The  varieties  of  speech  and  writing  are  a  notable  feature 
of  the  language.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  when  Chinese  lit- 
erature was  first  introduced,  the  written  and  spoken  Japanese 
were  the  same,  but  the  new  learning  was  so  attractive  to 
scholars  that  they  immediately  introduced  many  Chinese  words 
into  their  vocabulary,  while  at  the  same  time  the  Chinese  ideo- 
graphs became  part  of  the  national  possessions.  This  Chinese 
element,  which  has  gained  a  large  increment  since  the  revolu- 
tion of  1868,  when  Western  ideas  demanded  new  words  for 
their  expression,  has  affected  both  the  speech  and  the  printed 
page.  There  are  two  Chinese  pronunciations  and  one  Japanese 
of  very  many  words  in  common  use.  An  illustration  familiar 
to  every  reader  is  the  Japanese-Chinese  term  san  and  the  Japan- 
ese pronunciation  yama  of  the  same  character  meaning  moun- 
tain. This  double  or  triple  naming  of  objects  and  actions  is  an 
occasion  of  serious  labor  to  all  foreigners.  Scholars  affect  the 
Chinese  pronunciations  and  thus  speak  a  language  which  is 
somewhat  unintelligible.  In  writing,  also,  one  notices  a  large 
variation  in  the  native  books.  The  simplest  are  written  almost 
entirely  in  the  Japanese  katakana  or  native  syllabary.  A 
medium  grade  of  books  is  well  sprinkled  with  Chinese  char- 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  213 

acters,  while  a  higher  class  of  literature  is  wholly  in  Chinese, 
either  with  or  without  marginal  numerals  indicating  the  order 
in  which  the  characters  are  to  be  translated. 

3.  It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  the  missionary  has  no 
slight  task  before  him  if  he  intends  to  master  Japanese ;  since, 
aside  from  contending  against  the  temptation  to  speak  English 
only  as  would  be  possible  in  many  quarters,  he  must  learn  the 
vernacular,  and  if  he  is  ambitious  he  ought  also  to  know  the 
Chinese  pronunciation,  or  even  the  Chinese  characters  for  many 
words.  Then,  as  in  Korea,  he  is  confronted  by  a  complicated 
system  of  honorifics  and,  as  in  the  Arabic-speaking  countries, 
with  a  multitude  of  terms  applicable  to  the  same  object.  Thus,  if 
he  thinks  he  has  learned  once  for  all  the  word  for  rice,  meshi, 
he  is  appalled  upon  experimenting  with  his  new  treasure  to  find 
that  if  he  is  speaking  of  a  child's  rice,  he  should  use  the  word 
mama ;  if  addressing  his  teacher,  he  must  call  it  gozen,  while 
merchants  call  the  unboiled  rice  kome,  and  growing  rice  is 
known  as  ine.  It  is  not  surprising  that  Protestant  missionaries 
many  years  ago  before  English  was  so  commonly  used,  unan- 
imously resolved :  "  Whether  we  regard  the  missionary's 
health,  his  efficiency  as  a  worker,  or  his  ability  to  work  har- 
moniously with  the  Japanese  brethren,  it  is  our  opinion  that  his 
highest  and  most  permanent  successes  demand  that  for  a 
period  of  at  least  three  years  he  ought  not  to  be  expected  to 
take  any  responsible  charge,  but  should  give  his  whole  time 
and  strength  to  the  work  of  securing  a  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage and  people."  This  judgment  still  has  weight  with  all 
who  are  really  intent  upon  using  in  their  work  the  most  effi- 
cient and  satisfactory  medium  of  communication. 

4.  The  literature  of  the  country  dates  from  the  eighth  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  the  two  oldest  works  being  the  Kojiki,  "  Rec- 
ords of  Ancient  Matters,"  and  the  Nihongi,  or  "  Chronicles  of 
Japan."  They  contain  the  early  history  of  the  nation,  as  well 
as  much  fabulous  material  concerning  its  cosmogony  and  myth- 
ology, mingled  with  many  indecencies.  One  striking  feature 
about  later  books  which  in  general  are  "  meager  and  vapid 


214  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

when  compared  with  European  literature,"  is  the  fact  noted  by 
the  famous  authority  on  the  subject,  W.  G.  Aston :  "  I  beheve 
no  parallel  is  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  European  letters  to 
the  remarkable  fact  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  best 
writings  of  the  best  age  of  Japanese  literature  was  the  work  of 
women."  During  the  past  century  the  cause  of  reform  and 
national  enlargement  has  been  largely  forwarded  by  literature ; 
though  the  Chinese  element  in  it  is  increasingly  useful  because 
of  the  need  of  new  nomenclatures.  At  the  same  time  the  Chi- 
nese is  so  burdensome  and  time-consuming,  that  it  is  a  question 
whether  it  will  survive  the  present  century  for  popular  use, 

IV.  Religions  and  Morals.  —  India  and  Japan  are 
equally  prominent  among  the  greater  nations  in  their  emphasis 
of  religion.  A  few  smaller  countries,  both  cultivated  and 
savage,  are  similarly  devoted,  but  lack  the  religious  intelligence 
found  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom. 

I.  Shintoism.  —  This  is  not  only  the  national  cult  of  Japan, 
but  it  is  also  the  first  historically.  As  the  Chinese  characters 
Shin-to  indicate,  this  religion  is  the  "  god-way."  Dr.  Peery 
has  written  concerning  it :  "  It  has  no  moral  code,  no  dogmas, 
no  sacred  book.  Originally  it  consisted  chiefly  of  ancestor-  and 
nature-worship  and  of  certain  mythological  ideas.  A  chief 
feature  of  it  still  is  the  worship  of  ancestors  who  are  exalted 
to  a  high  pedestal  in  thought  and  worshipped  as  gods.  The 
divine  origin  of  the  Imperial  Family  and  the  obligation  to  wor- 
ship and  obey  it,  is  a  prominent  teaching  of  Shinto.  The  an- 
cestors of  the  Imperial  Family  were  to  be  held  in  supreme  rev- 
erence and  were  the  objects  of  especial  worship."  As  Mr. 
Kodera  has  said,  it  is  "  simply  a  remnant  of  the  primitive  wor- 
ship long  prevalent  among  the  rude  tribes  of  the  islands  of 
Japan,  and  subsequently  developed  and  shaped  according  to  the 
degree  of  civilization  to  which  they  attained."  It  is  question- 
able, however,  whether  Shintoism  can  be  rightly  called  a 
religion,  though  it  serves  very  well  as  a  system  for  furthering 
loyalty  and  devotion  to  the  reigning  house. 

Shinto  temples  are  very  appropriately  of  the  simplest  char- 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  215 

acter.  They  are  built  of  plain  uncolored  wood,  are  thatched 
or  covered  with  shingles,  and  their  torii  are  made  of  trunks  of 
fir  with  the  bark  removed.  The  most  sacred  shrines  in  the 
country  are  those  of  the  Sun-goddess  and  the  Goddess  of 
Food  in  the  province  of  Ise.  They  are  annually  visited  by 
thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  "  Enter- 
ing one  of  these  temples,  one  is  struck  with  the  absence  of 
images  and  the  presence  of  the  mirror,  which  has  been  vari- 
ously explained,  and  also  of  the  gohei,  a  wand  of  unpainted 
wood  upon  which  are  suspended  two  strips  of  paper  notched 
alternately  on  opposite  sides.  At  the  services  ancient  formulae 
are  recited  and  offerings  of  rice,  fruit,  etc.,  made,  these  rites 
being  often  accompanied  by  shrill  instrumental  music." 

2.  Buddhism  makes  itself  evident  by  a  multitude  of  famous 
temples  located  most  picturesquely  and  by  sounds  which,  if 
once  heard  are  never  forgotten,  coming  as  they  do  from  sweet- 
toned  bronze  bells  through  the  stillness  of  the  night  or  early 
morning.  It  was  introduced  into  Japan  via  the  bridge  of  Korea 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  The  nobles  were  favor- 
ably inclined  toward  the  teachings  of  the  Buddhist  missionaries, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  ninth  century  that  it  gained  any  pop- 
ular following. 

Its  doctrines  are  those  of  the  northern  type  of  this  faith,  but 
they  vary  greatly  according  to  the  peculiar  views  of  its  numer- 
ous divisions.  The  most  influential  of  these  is  known  as  the 
Shin  sect.  One  striking  feature  in  the  belief  of  this  sect,  is  its 
theory  as  to  the  way  of  salvation.  They  hold  that  men  of  all 
conditions  and  times,  if  they  will  only  put  forth  the  believing 
heart  and  invoke  Amida  Buddha,  will  be  born  in  heaven  and  so 
reach  Nirvana.  Consequently  sect  members  repeat  hundreds 
of  times  daily  the  formula  Namu  Amida  Butsu,  "  Hail,  Amida 
Buddha !  "  and  strive  for  the  believing  heart  which  is  con- 
ferred by  his  power.  Their  idea  is  not  so  much  to  possess  sal- 
vation as  a  reward,  but  to  express  gratitude  for  the  boundless 
compassion  of  Amida  and  for  the  certainty  of  being  born  into 
his  Pure  Land. 


2l6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

While  at  the  time  of  their  entrance  into  Japan  Buddhist 
priests  were  teachers  of  the  Empire  ancf  "^ell  versed  in  the  cult- 
ure of  their  day,  they  later  became  "ignorant  and  despised.  A 
persecuting  spirit  between  the  various  sects  arose  and  this  led 
to  great  loss  of  power.  At  present  re-formed.  Buddhism  is 
adopting  the  methods  of  Christianity,  especially^thbse  so  help- 
ful in  Sunday  Schools  and  Young  IVPen's  Christian  Associa- 
tions. They  are  also  doing  something 'in  the  way  of  missionary 
work  in  adjacent  countries  and  islands. 

3.  Other  Systems.  —  Confucianism  has  exerted  a  larger 
ethical  influence  upon  Japan  than  either  of  the  religions  men- 
tioned, though  deserving  to  be  called  a  religion  even  less  than 
Shintoism.  It  differs  in  no  respect  from  the  Confucianism  of 
China ;  but  fortunately  it  has  exerted  a  greater  moral  influence, 
especially  upon  the  higher  classes,  than  in  its  natal  country. 

A  sect  of  Shinto,  called  Kurosumi,  has  had  a  remarkable 
history,  resembling  in  many  respects  the  Christian  Science  of 
Western  lands.  While  the  Sun-god  is  the  chief  object  of  wor- 
ship, the  healing  of  diseases  is  the  prominent  feature,  as  also 
the  emphasis  of  righteousness  to  be  conquered  by  overcoming 
selfishness.  "  Cheerfulness,  thankfulness  for  the  blessings  re- 
ceived from  the  gods,  faith,  freedom  from  evil  desires,  and  self- 
restraint  are  the  virtues  most  emphasized." 

Another  sect,  known  as  Tenrikyo,  "  Doctrine  of  the  Heav- 
enly Reason,"  during  the  century  just  closed,  has  had  a  most 
remarkable  growth.  Strange  to  say,  its  founder  was  a  peasant 
woman  who,  at  forty  years  of  age,  received  in  a  trance  revela- 
tions from  the  gods,  who  used  her  personality  to  enlighten  man- 
kind. Her  teachings  are  so  nearly  akin  to  those  of  Christian- 
ity that  they  are  quoted  more  or  less  in  Christian  sermons  of  the 
Japanese.  The  most  hopeful  feature  about  this  sect  is  the  ex- 
hibition given  of  the  possibilities  of  the  missionary  propaganda 
of  Christianity.  Everywhere,  men  of  the  lower  classes  who  be- 
lieve in  these  doctrines,  engage  in  preaching  and  otherwise 
spread  the  knowledge  of  their  faith.  Just  now  the  sect  seems 
to  be  loosening  its  hold  upon  the  people. 


JAPAN    AND   ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  217 

4.  Moral  Defects  of  Japanese  Character.  —  When,  at  the  un- 
locking of  Japan,  foreigners  first  came  into  contact  with  this 
people,  they  were  shocked  by  the  open  evidences  of  impurity, 
and  it  consequently  was  called  "  The  Land  of  Licentiousness." 
While  it  is  now  not  so  manifest  as  in  the  earlier  days,  partly 
because  of  the  government  licensing  of  vice  and  its  confinement 
to  the  yoshiwara  sections  of  great  cities,  it  is  still  a  bane  of  the 
Empire.  This  evil  is  to  a  certain  extent  the  result  of  a  perver- 
sion of  filial  piety.  Daughters  of  a  family  reduced  to  want  are 
regarded  as  meritorious  if  they  sell  themselves  to  a  life  of 
shame  for  the  sake  of  aiding  their  parents. 

The  first  great  statesman  from  the  West  who  came  into  con- 
tact with  these  people,  Townsend  Harris,  was  shocked  by  their 
lack  of  truthfulness,  and  went  so  far  as  to  call  them  "  the 
greatest  liars  upon  the  face  of  the  earth."  Had  he  been  equally 
conversant  with  other  non-Christian  lands,  perhaps  he  would 
not  have  judged  them  so  harshly.  Even  in  the  present  stage 
of  Japan's  advancement,  truth  is  too  little  valued,  and  the 
priests  do  not  hesitate  to  admit  that  they  are  teaching  the 
people  a  mass  of  falsehoods. 

Dishonesty,  especially  in  commercial  affairs,  is  another  trait 
which  greatly  influences  Occidental  merchants  against  this 
wonderful  people.  Many  of  them  prefer  to  have  at  the  head 
of  their  establishments  Chinese  compradores,  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  more  trustworthy  and  honest.  "  Foreigners  trad- 
ing in  Japan  are  loud  in  their  complaints  against  the  native 
merchants  who  do  not  deliver  goods  equal  to  the  sample,  nor 
fulfil  contracts  that  involve  them  in  any  loss.  The  peasantry  is, 
in  the  main,  honest.  Domestic  servants  and  other  employees 
are  in  the  habit  of  taking  squeezes  from  what  passes  through 
their  hands." 

Intemperance  is  also  a  weakness,  not  especially  evident  to 
the  traveler,  but  nevertheless  prevalent  enough  if  one  goes  to 
the  tea  houses  or  to  places  where  rice  liquor,  called  sake,  is 
freely  imbibed.  The  introduction  of  cheap  alcohol  from  Amer- 
ica and  Europe,  which  is  mixed  with  water,  sugar  and  various 


2l8  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

flavors,  is  greatly  increasing  the  evils  of  intemperance,  since  it 
is  sold  at  a  very  low  price. 

V.  Outlying  Islands.  —  The  Japanese  chain  is  almost 
continuous  from  Kamchatka  to  Formosa ;  yet  aside  from  the 
main  islands,  only  those  that  have  been  the  scene  of  missionary 
effort  will  be  mentioned. 

1.  The  least  important  of  these  are  the  Riukiu  Islands 
(Luchu,  Loochoo),  thirty-seven  in  number,  which  stretch  like 
a  bow  most  of  the  distance  between  Japan  and  Formosa.  They 
abound  in  grass  and  trees  and  are  picturesquely  beautiful. 
Their  inhabitants,  estimated  to  number  170,000,  are  extremely 
similar  in  language  and  race  to  the  Japanese,  Their  manners, 
customs  and  Shinto  religious  observances  are  almost  identical 
with  those  of  Japan. 

2.  Formosa  is  wholly  deserving  its  name,  "  The  Beautiful." 
The  Chinese  call  it  Tai-wan.  The  scenery  along  the  eastern 
coast,  where  the  mountainous  backbone  of  the  island  lies  near 
the  shore,  is  "  beautiful  and  fantastic.  Domes  and  peaks  and 
wall-like  precipices  succeed  each  other  in  striking  variety.  A 
brilliant  verdure  clothes  their  sides,  down  which  dash  cascades 
that  shine  like  silver  in  the  tropical  sunlight."  Our  green- 
houses are  enriched  by  a  number  or  orchids  and  ornamental 
plants  that  came  originally  from  Formosa.  The  eastern  slopes 
of  this  central  range  constitute  an  extended  alluvial  plain 
gashed  with  many  water  channels  and  terminating  in  sand-flats. 
Here  rice  is  so  abundant  that  Formosa  has  been  called  "  the 
granary  of  China." 

Its  people  are  of  varied  races  and  numbered  2,728,817  in 
1897.  This  is  a  little  less  than  the  population  of  Massachusetts 
in  1900,  while  Formosa's  area  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  combined.  The 
Chinese  occupy  the  western  part  of  the  island,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  peopled  by  aborigines  who  are  of  Malay  extrac- 
tion. These  are  subdivided  into  a  partly  civilized  section,  in- 
habiting the  western  base  of  the  mountains,  while  the  remain- 
ing and  most  numerous  portion  are  in  their  aboriginal  state  and 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  2I9 

live  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  island  on  the  mountains.  They 
are  head-hunters  and  retain  other  primitive  Malay  customs. 
The  tattooing  of  their  women  is  very  grotesque. 

With  the  cession  of  the  island  to  Japan  in  1895,  a  consider- 
able influx  of  Japanese  resulted  and  under  its  Governor-gen- 
eral pacification  is  proceeding,  though  "  the  process  of  sub- 
jugation is  ruthless  and  indiscriminate."  The  officials  are 
genuinely  desirous  of  securing  a  righteous  administration,  but 
the  soldiery  are  often  overbearing  and  brutal.  Missionaries 
there  are  now  subject  to  the  Japanese  regulations. 


PART   XL  — MISSIONARY 

I.  Epitome  of  Protestant  Progress.  —  As  the  first  Prot- 
estant missionaries  arrived  in  Japan  only  forty-two  years  ago, 
and  as  the  real  status  of  present-day  missions  can  be  better 
understood  by  a  reference  to  the  earlier  work,  a  brief  summary 
is  given. 

I.  Protestant  missions  sent  their  earliest  representatives  to 
the  Empire  five  years  after  Commodore  Perry  had  opened 
Japan's  sea-gates  to  the  Occident  in  1854.  Not  until  March, 
1872,  however,  was  the  first  church  of  eleven  young  men 
formed  at  Yokohama.  It  was  prophetic  of  later  events  that 
this  earliest  Protestant  society  should  be  called  "  The  Church  of 
Christ  in  Japan,"  and  that  the  opening  article  of  its  Constitution 
should  read :  "  Our  church  does  not  belong  to  any  sect  what- 
ever ;  it  believes  only  in  the  name  of  Christ  in  whom  all  are  one ; 
it  believes  that  all  who  take  the  Bible  as  their  guide  and  who 
diligently  study  it  are  the  servants  of  Christ  and  our  brethren. 
For  this  reason  all  believers  on  earth  belong  to  the  family  of 
Christ  in  the  bonds  of  brotherly  love."  At  that  date  the  edicts 
against  Christianity  were  still  in  force  and  Prince  Iwakura  had 
recently  said  in  response  to  the  remonstrances  of  foreign  min- 
isters against  the  persecution  of  Catholics :  "  This  government 
rests  upon  the  theory  that  the  Mikado  is  tenshi,  son  of  heaven, 


220  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

that  is,  Son  of  God.  Christianity  would  bring  in  a  second  Son 
of  God;  therefore  we  will  resist  it  as  we  would  an  invading 
army."  Nevertheless,  in  1873,  this  same  Prince  recommended 
the  removal  of  the  edict-boards  prohibiting  the  espousal  of 
Christianity,  when  his  visit  to  America  and  Europe  in  1871  had 
convinced  him  that  they  were  injuring  the  country  in  the  esti- 
mation of  Western  nations  who  would  not  grant  concessions 
while  such  evidences  of  barbarity  remained. 

2.  The  period  of  popularity,  beginning  with  1873,  culmi- 
nated in  1868.  The  Revolution  in  1868  had  left  men  in  a  seeth- 
ing condition  of  unrest.  The  new  possibilities  dazed  even 
their  leaders.  Of  these  fifteen  years  the  late  Dr.  M.  L.  Gor- 
don, a  witness  of  the  events  narrated,  thus  writes :  "  The  state 
of  things  which  followed  is  almost  without  parallel.  Mission- 
ary schools  were  crowded  with  the  sons  and  daughters  of  high 
and  low.  A  missionary  was  called  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a 
national  university  and  to  be  a  general  adviser  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Statesmen,  men  of  wealth,  governors  and  lower  offi- 
cials became  the  patrons  of  Christian  schools  and  sometimes 
opened  their  houses  for  religious  services.  From  all  quarters 
came  requests  to  hold  meetings  in  schoolhouses  and  theaters. 
Audiences  numbering  several  hundreds,  sometimes  1,000  or 
1,500,  were  readily  got  together,  and  they  would  listen  to  a  suc- 
cession of  speakers  through  four  or  five  hours,  or  even  longer. 
'  We  have  seen  the  power  of  God  to-day !  '  was  a  frequent  ejac- 
ulation. Witnesses  of  those  scenes  will  never  forget  them.  In 
every  three  years  the  Church  was  doubled.  These  years  of  the 
appropriation  and  more  or  less  thorough  assimilation  of  the 
best  of  Western  thought  and  life  were  the  most  momentous  in 
the  nation's  history.  This  period  more  than  all  others  was 
creative  of  the  New  Japan." 

3.  Later  followed  a  reaction  which  has  been  powerful  almost 
to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  still  has  some  force. 
The  author  above  quoted,  thus  continues :  "  The  Conservatives 
were  quick  to  seize  upon  extravagancies  and  excesses  of  the 
new  movement  as  a  reason  for  opposing  the  movement  itself, 


JAPAN    AND   ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  221 

adroit  in  representing  the  unchristian  acts  of  Christian  nations 
as  the  legitimate  fruit  of  the  teaching  of  Christ,  and  skillful  in 
appealing  to  the  patriotism  and  the  passions  of  their  people. 
Assassination  was  the  fate  of  more  than  one  reformer.  A  mor- 
bid nationalism,  constantly  transforming  itself  into  the  hatred 
of  foreigners,  became  epidemic.  Cooperation  with  mission- 
aries, as  with  other  foreigners,  became  impossible,  and  the 
schools  so  hopefully  started  on  that  basis  a  few  years  before 
were  broken  up.  The  pathway  of  the  Japanese  Christians  was 
sown  thick  with  thorns.  Bowing  before  the  Imperial  portraits 
was  made  a  test  of  loyalty.  Confession  of  Christ  was  often 
followed  by  loss  of  position  in  school  or  government  office. 
Along  with  assertions  of  the  moribund  condition  of  evangelical 
Christianity  in  America  and  the  untrustworthiness  of  the  Bible, 
doubts  of  the  fundamental  teachings  of  Christ  were  taught,  and 
distrust  of  their,  missionary  teachers  was  fostered  in  the  minds 
of  Japanese  believers  by  liberals  from  other  countries  and  by 
Japanese  who  had  studied  abroad  and  now  returned  to  aston- 
ish their  people  with  a  Christless  Christianity.  The  flock  of 
Christ  was  dazed  and  discouraged.  Church  attendance,  Bible 
reading,  pure  and  prayerful  living,  brotherly  love  and  evangel- 
istic zeal  received  a  chill  —  in  the  hearts  of  many  ministers  and 
laymen,  the  chill  of  death.  The  period  of  opposition  had 
reached  its  culmination."  With  the  revision  of  the  treaties  in 
1899  and  Japan's  recognition  as  a  most  valuable  factor  in  the 
Chinese  Boxer  uprising  of  1900,  the  tide  is  again  setting  in  the 
right  direction  and  Christianity  once  more  advances. 

II.  Protestant  Missions  To-day.  —  i.  The  forces  en- 
gaged are  mainly  American,  thirty-one  societies  being  from 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  while  seven  are  from  Great 
Britain  and  one  from  the  Continent,  besides  the  Salvation 
Army,  the  Hephzibah  Faith  Mission  and  four  local  societies. 
Mr.  Loomis's  religious  statistics,  which  are  gathered  annually 
in  Japan,  give  the  following  data  for  1900 :  Missionaries,  757 ; 
stations,  157  (including  many  where  more  than  one  society 
labor,  so  that  the  number  is  too  large  by  about  fifty)  ;  organ- 


12i  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

ized  churches,  443,  of  which  ninety-five  are  self-supporting; 
church  members,  42,451 ;  native  ministers,  321 ;  unordained 
preachers  and  helpers,  558 ;  Bible  women,  224. 

2.  The  same  authority  furnishes  these  statistics  of  work 
done  by  the  above  force  and  by  the  churches  to  which  they 
belong:  sixteen  boys'  boarding  schools  with  2,270  scholars; 
forty-five  girls'  boarding  schools  with  3,361  scholars ;  eighty- 
five  day  schools  with  6,086  pupils ;  949  Sunday-schools  with 
36,310  scholars;  sixteen  theological  schools  with  120  students; 
thirteen  schools  for  Bible  women  with  175  students;  six  hos- 
pitals and  eight  dispensaries  at  which  2,121  patients  had  been 
treated  during  the  year.  This  by  no  means  exhausts  the  list 
of  activities  of  the  Protestant  Church.  The  noteworthy  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible  and  other  Christian  literature,  and  the  ex- 
tremely valuable  original  works  in  Japanese;  the  remarkable 
prominence  of  Japanese  Christians  in  the  literary,  social  and 
political  world ;  their  intense  interest  in  practical  philanthropies 
and  reforms,  as  seen  in  their  score  of  orphanages  and  the  homes 
for  lepers,  the  aged  and  ex-convicts,  the  agitation  against  vice, 
etc. ;  all  these  and  many  other  forms  of  effort  make  Japan  a  re- 
markable mission  field,  so  that  any  apparent  setback  follow- 
ing the  reaction  of  a  decade  ago  is  only  relative.  If  the  present 
fruitage  of  work  in  Japan  were  found  in  other  mission  lands, 
it  would  be  regarded  as  very  satisfactory. 

3.  This  progress  is  made  under  many  discouragements.  In 
Part  I  of  this  chapter  were  indicated  those  personal  charac- 
teristics which  would  naturally  make  the  soil  a  stony  one  for 
the  lodgment  of  truth.  Immorality  is  by  common  consent  the 
one  sin  which  most  hinders  the  reception  of  a  pure  gospel ; 
while  intemperance,  untruthfulness,  an  exaggerated  form  of 
patriotism  and  a  very  natural  materialism  stand  next  in  the 
list  of  moral  obstacles  that  Christianity  must  overcome  in  sav- 
ing Japan's  soul. 

The  forms  of  false  belief  that  come  most  often  to  the  front 
as  missionaries  converse  with  the  people  are  agnosticism  and 
atheism  among  the  modern  scholars  of  the  Empire.    Ancestor 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  223 

worship,  SO  powerful  in  the  days  of  Japan's  tutelage  to  China, 
has  little  force  to-day  except  among  elderly  people.  Pantheism 
has  its  hold  on  many  who  in  consequence  find  it  difficult  to 
believe  in  the  personality  of  God  and  also  are  inclined  to  hold 
it  illogical  to  assent  to  the  conscious  survival  of  the  soul  after 
death.  Indeed,  many  flatly  deny  immortality.  Buddhism  has 
a  strong  fascination  for  a  multitude,  especially  in  the  modern 
forms  mentioned  in  Part  I.  Its  doctrine  of  "  ingwa  "  —  cause 
and  effect,  leading  to  practical  fatalism,  and  the  more  common 
inclination  to  idol  worship  and  the  Buddhist  ceremonies  at 
death,  enthrall  many  who  would  otherwise  heed  the  Christian 
call.  Unfortunately  indifference  to  all  religion  makes  scoffers 
of  multitudes. 

4.  If  obstacles  are  many,  aids  and  encouragements  are  also 
numerous.  Christianity  of  the  Protestant  type  gained  its  first 
strong  hold  on  the  Samurai  class,  thus  reversing  the  usual  or- 
der according  to  which  "  to  the  poor  the  gospel  is  preached." 
Though  they  are  now  much  less  numerous  than  formerly,  they 
number  perhaps  two  millions,  and  are  a  powerful  influence  in 
the  community.  Character  is  being  transformed  through  the 
Spirit's  use  of  moral  education,  tact  and  wisdom  on  the  part  of 
the  missionary,  and  above  all  through  the  testimony  of  a  pure 
life  endorsing  the  patient  teaching  and  preaching  of  the  gospel. 
In  the  realm  of  religion  and  ethics,  workers  have  found  a  lev- 
erage in  Confucianism's  doctrines  of  filial  obedience  and  loyalty 
to  rulers,  by  means  of  which  the  higher  and  cognate  duty  of 
obedience  to  the  Lord  of  all  is  exalted.  The  Buddhist  view 
of  "  ingwa  "  is  effective  for  Christianity  just  as  it  is  an  obstacle 
to  its  acceptance,  and  the  doctrine  of  faith  as  held  by  the  Shin 
sect  is  also  helpful.  The  fact  that  the  native  religions  contain 
no  dynamic  life  is  always  a  thought  that  aids  the  genuine  seeker 
after  righteousness.  The  thirst  for  a  divine  man  and  the  love 
of  the  beautiful  in  morality  as  well  as  in  nature,  are  the  incen- 
tives in  many  lives  that  bring  them  to  Jesus.  Always  the  mis- 
sionary must  proceed  with  great  courtesy  and  kindness  and 
must  show  that  he  has  a  logical  mind,  especially  if  dealing  with 


224  GEOGRAPHY  OF  PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

the  mofe  intelligent  classes.  While  philosophy  is  not  now  so 
much  affected  as  it  was  a  decade  since,  a  strong  influence  is 
sure  to  be  exerted  upon  the  educated  by  this  form  of  meeting 
the  views  of  the  inquirer. 

5.  A  crucial  difficulty  greatly  hampering  missionary  work, 
is  found  in  the  government  attitude  toward  religious  education. 
The  Imperial  Edict  on  Education  of  1890  had  been  utilized 
by  enemies  of  Christianity  for  making  an  attack  on  its  diver- 
gent system  of  morality;  but  a  more  serious  obstacle  presents 
itself  in  the  Ministerial  Regulation  of  August  3,  1899,  which 
ran  thus :  "  All  schools  which  give  a  general  education  shall 
be  independent  of  religion ;  therefore  it  is  not  permitted  in  gov- 
ernment schools  and  in  other  public  schools,  as  well  as  in  those 
schools  which  are  guided  by  the  ordinances  touching  public 
schools,  to  impart  religious  instruction,  or  to  celebrate  religious 
ceremonies,  whether  within  or  without  the  regular  school 
hours."    Other  rulings  increase  the  difficulties  here  suggested. 

The  seriousness  of  this  problem  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing considerations :  Christian  schools  of  the  lower  order 
cease  to  be  as  helpful  to  religion  as  formerly.  The  influence 
upon  an  impressionable  child  that  may  come  from  a  Christian 
teacher  who  is  at  liberty  to  inculcate  by  word  as  well  as  by 
deed  the  truths  of  Christianity  is  very  largely  made  inert. 
More  important,  however,  is  the  effect  that  is  produced  upon 
Sunday-school  work.  Hitherto  these  missionary  schools  had 
the  Sunday-school  as  part  of  their  program,  the  one  feeding  the 
other ;  this  is  impossible  now  unless  additional  buildings  are 
available,  and  even  then  attendance  would  only  be  small  be- 
cause entirely  voluntary.  Institutions  of  a  higher  grade  are 
even  more  seriously  affected.  Either  religion  must  be  ban- 
ished from  such  instruction,  or  students  must  be  subjected  to 
examination  in  passing  into  higher  government  institutions,  in- 
stead of  their  entering  by  certificate  as  in  native  schools,  and 
even  then  they  are  not  relieved  of  the  possibility  of  military 
conscription.  Under  these  conditions  many  promising  Chris- 
tians are  tempted  to  forsake  Protestant  institutions  and  enter 


j  JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  225 

government  schools  and  colleges  with  all  the  temptations  in- 
cident thereto.  Colleges  like  Neesima's  Doshisha  and  the 
Tokyo  Meiji  Gakuin  are  severely  crippled  by  such  a  regulation. 
There  are  alleviating  considerations,  however.  It  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  Japan  is  not  a  Christian  nation  and  that  only 
about  one  in  every  three  hundred  and  fifty  of  its  population 
claims  to  profess  Christianity  of  any  sort.  Of  these  forms  of 
Christianity  Romanism  and  Protestantism  are  at  decided 
variance,  while  the  Buddhists  and  to  a  less  degree  the  Shinto- 
ists  are  ready  to  use  the  schools  as  places  of  propagandism. 
The  authorities  must  be  impartial  and,  while  Christianity  loses 
by  the  present  regime,  its  opponents  are  equally  hampered  in 
their  schemes.  Moreover,  private  schools  are  not  forbidden ; 
they  can  continue  as  religious  as  before,  and,  if  they  desire, 
can  follow  the  admirable  curriculum  of  the  government  schools. 
If  satisfactory  work  is  done,  their  pupils  ought  not  to  fear  the 
prescribed  examinations  for  entry  into  higher  government  in- 
stitutions. How  long  the  present  regulations  will  last  is  not 
known,  but  that  they  can  be  readily  changed,  since  they  are 
not  laws,  is  evident;  and  strong  remonstrances  by  missionary 
educators  may  eventually  be  heeded,  notwithstanding  present 
failure.  It  may  be  a  providence  in  disguise;  for,  as  Pastor 
Schiller  has  pointed  out,  it  may  lead  to  concentration  on  "  the 
old  apostolic  means,  preaching  of  the  Word  by  speech  or  writ- 
ing, and  the  influence  of  exemplary  Christian  characters."  He 
cites  as  a  parallel  the  passing  of  medical  missions  because  of 
Japan's  medical  progress,  and  the  gain  to  the  Christian  cause 
incident  thereto.  In  any  case,  missionaries  are  brought  face  to 
face  with  Rev.  E.  A.  Booth's  question :  "  Has  the  Church  of  God 
a  legitimate  call  to  maintain  and  carry  on  at  great  expense 
of  money  and  men,  purely  secular  education  for  the  sake  of 
reaching  a  possible  few  individuals  among  the  pupils  who  may 
be  induced  to  attend  Christian  services  a  few  times  a  week  ? 
This  is  a  question  upon  which  the  voice  of  Christendom  should 
be  heard  with  no  uncertain  sound;  especially  when  it  is  borne 
in  mind  that  the  system  of  education  which  must  in  that  case 


2.26  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

be  followed  is  openly  and  avowedly  unchristian."  Theological 
schools  will  doubtless  continue,  unaffected  by  the  Department 
of  Education,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  a  great  union  Chris- 
tian University  may  rise  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  Church  in  all 
its  branches,  as  was  suggested  with  unanimous  approval  at  a 
gathering  of  about  one  hundred  educational  missionaries  early 
in  1900, 

III.  The  Outlook.  —  i.  The  Two  Great  Religions.  —  Of 
the  two  rivals  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  Shintoism  has  practi- 
cally withdrawn  from  the  field.  The  authorities  at  its  Mecca, 
the  central  shrine  of  Ise,  have  renounced  all  claim  to  be  repre- 
sentatives of  a  religion  and  have  been  incorporated  "  as  an  as- 
sociation to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  Japan's  single  line  of 
emperors  and  to  foster  the  principles  of  Japanese  patriotism. 
Many  other  Shinto  sects  retain  their  claim  to  be  a  religion,  but 
this  central  association  discourages  them  in  every  possible  way ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  all  Shintoism  will  eventually  be 
absorbed  into  the  Ise  movement,  and  every  Japanese  will  be 
a  Shintoist  in  the  sense  that  he  is  profoundly  loyal  and  pa- 
triotic. The  significance  of  this  movement  seems  to  be  that 
Shintoism  as  a  religion  has  no  future."  Another  fact  looking 
in  that  direction  is  indicated  by  Dr.  Correll  in  speaking  of  the 
Government's  regulation  concerning  religion  in  schools :  "  It 
has  long  been  a  question  whether  the  ceremony  performed  in 
the  schools  on  the  Emperor's  birthday,  November  3,  when  all 
teachers  and  scholars  are  required  to  pass  in  front  of  the  por- 
traits of  the  Emperor  and  Empress  and  make  their  obeisance 
thereto,  is  a  religious  service  or  not,  some  holding  that  it  is, 
and  others  that  it  is  not;  but  this  order  settles  the  dispute,  as 
it  could  not  be  allowed  if  it  were  a  religious  ceremony.  This 
is  a  very  important  point  gained."  But  Shintoism  still  retains 
prayers  and  acts  of  worship,  and  may  yet  prove  an  antagonist 
to  Christianity. 

Buddhism  has  done  its  utmost  within  a  few  years  to  be  rec- 
ognized as  a  state  religion,  urging  its  long  history  and  the  many 
benefits  conferred  on  the  Empire,  and  objecting  that  its  modern 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING   ISLANDS  227 

rival,  Christianity,  is  an  alien  faith  which  is  taxed  and  not  men- 
tioned in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Government.  Since  the  new 
treaties  went  into  effect  in  1899,  however,  missionaries  came 
imder  Japanese  law  and,  as  such,  were  required  to  register  and 
to  state  their  creeds,  methods  of  work  and  places  of  preach- 
ing. Thus  at  last  Christian  missionaries  are  recognized  and  the 
Buddhist  objection  disappears. 

2.  The  attitude  of  the  Government  to  Christianity  is  evi- 
denced in  another  particular.  More  than  a  year  ago  it  laid  be- 
fore the  Diet  a  religious  bill  that  was  passed  and  brought  dis- 
may to  the  Buddhists.  "  It  puts  all  religions  on  a  level,  all 
equally  entitled  to  protection,  their  teachers  exempt  from  mili- 
tary duty  and  their  buildings  free  from  taxation.  It  will  mod- 
ify existing  opposition ;  it  will  give  the  new  religion  a  kind  of 
social  standing;  it  will  make  it  easier  for  the  churches." 

3.  The  Protestant  churches  are  in  a  hopeful  condition  and 
are  growing  in  influence  and  power.  The  tendency  to  ultra- 
liberalism  in  theology  is  yielding  to  a  more  reverent  and  bibli- 
cal belief ;  Christ  as  the  divine  and  supreme  Lord  is  taking  His 
rightful  place  in  their  teaching  and  lives ;  the  old-time  inter- 
est in  theater-preaching  is  again  calling  out  audiences  of  as 
many  as  3,500  who  will  listen  for  hours  at  a  time  to  leading 
Japanese  preachers ;  and  Christian  officials,  teachers,  chaplains 
and  literary  men  are  once  more  raising  aloft  the  banner  of 
evangelical  Christianity.  Self-support  is  being  emphasized  and 
other  marks  of  independence  are  manifest.  Even  the  terra 
clausa  of  the  higher  government  educational  institutions  is  be- 
ing successfully  entered  by  the  College  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  and  by  missionaries  invited  to  give  Christian  lec- 
tures to  their  students. 

4.  The  spirit  of  unity  among  various  branches  of  the  Prot- 
estant Church  justifies  Bishop  Fyson  of  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  in  the  appeal :  "  God  has  set  before  us  in  this 
land  an  open  door  for  reunion  such  as  cannot  be  found  else- 
where in  all  the  world.  It  is  our  duty  and  privilege  to  enter 
this  open  door  and  to  seize  upon  every  opportunity  that  pre- 


228  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

sents  itself  for  forwarding  this  movement."  His  appeal  for 
practical  unity  was  assented  to  by  a  meeting  of  the  Sendai  mis- 
sionary body  in  1901.  Other  wider  movements  show  still  bet- 
ter the  strength  of  this  desire.  For  many  years  the  various 
Presbyterian  bodies  of  the  United  States,  Canada  and  Scot- 
land have  been  united  into  a  single  "  Church  of  Christ  in 
Japan,"  while  Episcopalians  of  every  name  have  formed  the 
"  Nippon  Sei  Kokwai."  And  during  the  first  month  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  various  Methodist  societies  met  and 
agreed  to  take  steps  to  organize  themselves  into  one  "  Japan 
Methodist  Church,"  a  consummation  which  the  boards  in  the 
home  lands  ought  to  make  speedily  possible.  A  movement  of 
greater  importance  still  is  the  report  in  April,  1901,  of  the 
persons  appointed  at  the  Conference  of  the  previous  October 
to  draft  a  "  Constitution  of  the  Standing  Committee  of  Co- 
operating Christian  Missions  in  Japan."  Its  aims  are  quite 
similar  to  those  described  in  the  section  on  the  Philippines  in 
the  previous  chapter,  though  this  report  was  issued  about  a 
fortnight  before  the  Philippine  missionaries  had  agreed  upon 
their  plan  of  union.  Already  the  members  of  four  societies 
have  signed  the  report,  which  becomes  operative  so  soon  as 
two-thirds  of  the  missionaries  in  the  Empire  assent  to  its  pro- 
visions. A  recent  issue  of  the  "  Japan  Evangelist  "  further 
reports  that  the  committee  appointed  by  the  late  Tokyo  Con- 
ference is  proceeding  satisfactorily  with  their  union  edition  of 
"  One  Hundred  Hymns."  When  such  proofs  of  harmony  are 
to  be  seen  on  every  hand,  it  is  not  surprising  that  all  are  read- 
ing one  Bible  and  singing  the  same  psalms  of  thanksgiving  to 
God  who  has  so  marvelously  transformed  within  a  single  life- 
time this  great  empire  of  the  East,  and  so  singularly  united  His 
servants  laboring  there.  All  these  facts  are  a  practical  ex- 
emplification of  the  deliverance  passed  unanimously  by  a  ris- 
ing vote  at  the  Japan  Conference  of  1900:  "Resolved,  That 
this  Conference  of  missionaries,  in  the  city  of  Tokyo  assem- 
bled, hereby  declare  their  conviction  that  all  who  through  faith 
are  one  in  Christ,  are  also  one  body ;  and  they  therefore  implore 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  229 

all  those  who  love  the  Lord  Jesus  and  His  Church  in  sincerity 
to  pray  therefor  and  labor  thereunto,  in  order  that  the  true 
unity,  for  which  the  Master  prayed  on  the  night  in  which  He 
was  betrayed,  may  become  a  reality." 

5.  This  growth  in  the  Christian  sentiment  of  the  Empire  has 
an  evident  effect  on  the  community.  How  widely  the  nczv 
leaven  is  permeating  society  may  be  gathered  from  a  pamphlet 
just  issued  by  Rev.  Dr.  Greene,  of  Tokyo,  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing facts  have  been  taken:  In  the  present  Diet  Christians 
have  thirteen  members,  besides  the  Speaker,  and  among  them 
some  of  the  most  efficient  men.  "  One  of  them  was  elected  in 
a  strongly  Buddhist  district  by  a  majority  of  five  to  one."  Last 
year,  in  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Liberal  party,  two  of 
its  three  members  were  Christians ;  and  this  year  one  of  the 
three.  Three  per  cent,  of  the  officers  of  the  army  are  said  to 
be  Christians,  and  a  goodly  proportion  also  of  naval  officers. 
The  late  Rear-Admiral  Serata  was  an  ardent  and  active  Chris- 
tian. Christians  in  abnormal  numbers  abound  in  the  universi- 
ties and  government  colleges,  among  both  students  and  in- 
structors. Not  less  than  three  of  the  great  dailies  of  Tokyo  are 
largely  in  Christian  hands,  and  Christians  are  at  the  head  of 
editorial  departments  in  several  others.  A  very  large  volume 
of  charitable  work  and  the  most  successful  charitable  institu- 
tions are  also  under  Christian  management.  From  2,500  to 
3,000  youth  pass  every  year  out  of  Christian  schools,  where 
they  have  averaged  four  years  spent  under  Christian  influences. 

6.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  victory  of  evangelical 
Christianity  has  yet  been  won  in  Japan.  While  if  we  count  the 
Japanese  there  is  nominally  one  Protestant  worker  to  every 
34,000  of  the  population,  after  making  all  allowances  there  is 
scarcely  one  for  every  one  hundred  thousand.  "  Most  mis- 
sions find  it  wise  policy  to  have  their  base  of  operations  in  the 
capital.  Thus  twenty  per  cent,  of  all  the  workers  are  located 
at  Tokyo ;  and  while  this  does  not  give  that  great  city  too  many, 
large  country  districts  are  practically  untouched.  The  work  of 
Christianizing  Japan  has  just  begun.    Only  a  small  fraction  of 


230  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

this  exceedingly  important  Oriental  nation  has  been  Christian- 
ized, and  though  this  fraction  has  an  influence  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  its  size,  yet  now  is  the  time  not  to  relax  effort,  but 
to  redouble  it."  The  small  number  of  Japanese  theological 
students  deeply  concerns  the  missionaries  there,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  that  lack,  the  Tokyo  Conference  of  last  October  felt 
from  other  considerations  the  necessity  of  passing  the  follow- 
ing minute :  "  Resolved,  That,  although  the  Japanese  Chris- 
tians must  in  increasing  measure  undertake  the  responsibility 
of  Christianizing  their  land,  yet  for  a  still  longer  time  the  ser- 
vices of  missionaries  from  other  countries  are  necessary.  We 
accordingly  request  our  missionary  authorities,  not  only  to 
maintain  their  present  force  here,  but  also  to  adequately  con- 
sider our  petition  for  a  wider  reenforcement  for  special  needs." 
7.  The  reenforcements  needed  are  naturally  men  and  women 
of  somewhat  unusual  qualities  of  mind  and  heart.  Yet  evangel- 
istic gifts  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  when  the  reader  remem- 
bers that  from  May  12  to  June  30,  1901,  the  efforts  of  the 
Japan  Evangelical  Alliance's  Twentieth  Century  Evangelistic 
Movement  led  in  the  city  of  Tokyo  alone  to  meetings  in  fifty- 
two  churches,  attended  by  fully  100,000,  and  resulting  in  5,307 
converts  or  inquirers.  "  The  cooperation  of  all  bodies  of  Chris- 
tians, the  simplicity  of  the  message,  the  earnestness  of  the  lead- 
ers, and  the  use  of  the  open  Bible  have  made  a  profound  im- 
pression and  prepared  the  way  for  larger  harvests.  This  move- 
ment was  initiated  and  in  the  main  carried  on  by  the  Japanese 
themselves,  while  warmly  supported  by  the  missionaries.  Able 
native  pastors,  prominent  educators,  and  members  of  Parlia- 
ment and  reformers  were  leaders  in  the  work,  pressing  home 
the  guilt  of  sin,  redemption  from  sin  through  Jesus  Christ, 
and  the  call  for  pure  lives.  It  was  a  novel  thing  in  Japan  for 
women  to  take  part  in  these  efforts,  distributing  invitations 
and  laboring  with  bands  of  workers  in  the  street  meetings.  The 
campaign  has  extended  to  several  cities  and  promises  to  be- 
come a  national  movement  with  far-reaching  results."  Pente- 
costal opportunities  demand  missionaries  of  spiritual  power 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  23 1 

and  evangelistic  desires,  even  though  exceptional  mental  qual- 
ities are  desirable. 

One  of  the  most  marked  features  of  this  evangelistic  move- 
ment is  the  wonderful  way  in  which  it  is  affecting  Japanese 
students.  Thus  in  his  tour  of  the  world,  Mr.  John  R.  Mott 
spent  the  month  of  October,  1901,  in  Japan,  and  the  meetings 
held  by  him  and  other  Christian  Association  workers  were 
greatly  blessed.  At  two  services  held  at  Sendai  140  students 
decided  to  become  followers  of  Christ,  while  at  Tokyo  great 
victories  were  won.  One  of  the  workers  writes :  "  As  was 
the  case  last  night,  hundreds  of  students  were  turned  away 
because  the  hall  was  not  large  enough.  A  thousand  had 
packed  into  the  room,  which  seats  about  600,  a  full  hour  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  meeting.  About  170  students  came  out 
clearly  in  their  decision  to  become  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ. 
This  makes  439  such  decisions  in  four  meetings  during  the 
past  three  days  —  all  of  them  students."  As  efficient  com- 
mittees of  earnest  Christians  were  appointed  to  follow  up  the 
work,  permanent  results  of  great  value  are  confidently  ex- 
pected. 

IV.  Japan's  Outlying  Islands.  —  i.  Passing  through  the 
northern  island  of  Yezo,  where  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
is  doing  its  beneficent  work  for  the  rapidly  disappearing  Ainu 
who  have  dwindled  to  17,573,  one  comes  to  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Kurile  chain.  A  work  begun  under  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  at 
this  point,  and  now  carried  on  by  his  widow,  Mrs.  H.  E.  Car- 
penter, accomplished  something  for  the  nearest  islands  of  the 
group.  While  only  touring  work  has  been  done,  and  though 
foreigners  have  been  on  the  field  in  summer  for  the  most  part, 
some  of  the  islanders  are  being  brought  into  a  knowledge  of  the 
truth.  One  of  the  representatives  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  has  also  participated  in  the  enterprise. 

2.  But  little  fruitage  can  be  reported  from  the  Riukiu  or 
Luchu  Islands,  as  no  foreigner  is  permanently  located  there. 
It  is  a  singular  fact  that,  just  as  Commodore  Perry  made  Naha 


-Z-^^.  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

(Nafa,  Napha)  his  base  of  operations  when  he  moved  against 
Yedo  and  finally  succeeded  in  opening  Japan,  so  some  British 
naval  officers,  after  opening  China  to  missions,  felt  so  con- 
cerned about  the  souls  of  the  Japanese  who  could  not  be  di- 
rectly reached,  that  they  formed  a  missionary  society  of  their 
own  and  sent  Dr,  Bettelheim,  a  converted  Hungarian  Jew,  as 
the  first  Protestant  missionary  to  Naha  in  1846.  Very  few 
missionaries  have  ever  been  so  closely  hounded  and  interfered 
with  as  he,  and  finally  his  health  gave  way  and  he  withdrew. 
Mr.  Moreton,  who  followed  him,  was  obliged  to  leave  the  field 
soon,  and  the  work  was  not  again  undertaken  until  a  decade 
ago.  At  present  representatives  of  the  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety, of  the  Methodist  Board,  North,  and  of  the  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union  visit  it  and  carry  on  a  permanent  work  through 
Japanese  pastors  acting  under  their  direction.  Though  the  most 
striking  object  that  one  sees  on  approaching  this  field  is  the 
ever  present  whited  sepulchres  that  cover  the  hillsides,  the  peo- 
ple are  dead  only  in  trespasses  and  sins;  and  when  brought 
under  the  power  of  Christianity,  as  many  of  them  have  been, 
they  are  worthy  Christians,  albeit  very  poorly  fed  and  far  from 
clean.  What  is  just  now  most  desired  is  a  larger  use  of 
woman's  kindly  offices ;  for  nine  years  have  elapsed  since  Mrs. 
Thomson  "  nearly  upset  the  equilibrium  of  the  city  of  Naha. 
Her  appearance  on  the  street  was  the  signal  for  a  general  sus- 
pension of  business.  She  could  clear  the  public  square,  which 
was  the  general  market  place,  of  both  merchants  and  customers 
inside  of  three  minutes  if  it  was  known  that  she  was  out  walk- 
ing in  any  of  the  streets.  This  disturbance  of  the  traffic  of  the 
place  led  to  the  rather  amusing  request  on  the  part  of  the  police 
that  the  lady  should  stay  indoors  during  the  day,  only  coming 
out  after  dark."  As  compared  with  other  new  fields,  and  in 
view  of  the  current  prejudices  against  their  Japanese  masters, 
the  progress  made  during  the  ten  years  of  missionary  occu- 
pancy is  very  satisfactory. 

3.  Still  less  has  been  done  for  the  Bonin  Islands,  lying  to  the 
eastward  of  the  Luchu  group.    Until  their  cession  to  Japan  in 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  233 

1876,  the  inhabitants  were  settlers  from  nearly  every  nation 
who  had  married  half-breed  wives  from  Guam,  thus  constitut- 
ing a  Eurasian  colony.  To-day  the  Japanese  settlers  are  the 
leading  element.  Mission  work  among  this  cosmopolitan  com- 
munity has  mainly  depended  upon  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  and  its  allied  St.  Andrew's  Mission.  Rev. 
C.  Johnson,  of  Kobe,  has  likewise  taken  an  interest  in  them,  as 
has  Miss  Crosby  of  the  Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society. 
Though  no  foreigner  resides  here,  occasional  visits  are  made 
by  missionaries,  and  J.  Gonsalves,  a  very  earnest  and  pious 
native  of  the  islands,  acts  for  the  S.  P.  G.  as  resident  teacher 
and  evangelist.  Emigration,  absorption  by  the  Japanese  ele- 
ment, or  extinction  stares  the  islanders  in  the  face,  the  probable 
outcome  being  their  large  intermarriage  with  Japanese  women 
and  the  evangelization  of  the  little  community,  which  can  never 
much  exceed  the  present  population  of  about  4,000. 

4.  Of  Formosa  one  can  tell  a  very  different  story.  This  has 
been  practically  the  sole  field  of  the  Presbyterians  of  Canada, 
who  under  the  marvelous  labors  of  the  recently  deceased 
MacKay,  accomplished  so  much  for  the  northern  third  of  the 
island,  and  the  Presbyterians  of  England,  who  have  cultivated 
the  southwestern  and  central  sections,  with  no  less  success. 
Mackay  of  Uganda  wrought  no  more  heroically  and  fruitfully 
in  his  African  field  than  did  this  Formosan  MacKay,  whose 
last  report  ends  thus :  "  I  am  not  writing  about  this  year  1900, 
but  will  state  that  to-day  we  are  in  the  midst  of  progressive 
and  aggressive  work.  The  God  of  battles  is  with  us.  So  we 
can  sing  '  Onward,  Christian  Soldiers,'  '  Looking  unto  Jesus.'  " 
This  one  man,  almost  unaided  and  never  with  more  than  a 
single  foreign  colleague,  so  lived  and  enthused  his  fourscore 
native  assistants,  that  he  gathered  together  in  his  churches 
nearly  1,900  communicants,  while  his  schools  had  in  training 
1,314  pupils,  and  Oxford  College  forty-three  students.  His 
bravery,  which  never  failed  him  even  in  the  land  of  the  head- 
hunters,  and  his  large  use  of  lay  dentistry,  so  attracted  the 
people  that  they  willingly  listened  to  the  words  of  this  man 


234  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  God.  Few  men  have  so  successfully  used  the  peripatetic 
training  school  as  he  with  his  student  helpers.  Some  of  the 
school  work  of  this  mission  has  been  given  up  since  the  island 
came  under  the  Japanese  educational  regulations. 

The  English  Presbyterians  have  found  the  years  following 
the  Japanese  occupancy  of  Formosa  the  most  prosperous  in 
their  experience.  It  is  true  that  touring  and  visitation  have 
been  limited  somewhat,  but  the  overthrow  of  Chinese  conserva- 
tism and  the  consequent  greater  openness  of  that  portion  of 
the  population  have  more  than  counterbalanced  this  loss.  Most 
of  their  converts  are  the  civilized  aborigines  —  perhaps  two- 
thirds  of  them ;  but  beyond  reaching  those  along  the  foothills, 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  evangelize  the  wild  savages  of 
the  eastern  half  of  the  island.  School  work  is  likely  to  be 
somewhat  changed  under  the  new  order  of  things  and  perhaps 
Japanese  will  need  to  be  taught ;  yet  as  the  new  rulers  have  es- 
tablished schools  everywhere  and  in  the  Tainan  country  alone 
have  founded  twenty-five  normal  schools,  there  will  be  less 
need  for  enlarging  their  educational  work.  The  members  of 
their  churches  not  only  feel  responsible  for  furthering  evangel- 
ization among  their  own  people,  but  have  also  started  a  mis- 
sion on  the  Pescadores. 

An  interesting  development  of  Japanese  Christianity  is  the 
care  taken  for  their  fellow-countrymen  in  these  new  fields  by 
the  Japanese  churches.  A  number  of  missionaries  from  that 
Empire  are  laboring  here  in  Formosa,  some  of  them  wholly 
supported  by  Japanese  Christians.  With  an  official  exception 
to  be  noted  below,  they  are  doing  little  for  the  natives  of  the 
island,  however. 

The  attitude  of  Japanese  officials  to  missions  should  be 
noted.  The  Formosan  Republic,  which  was  declared  when 
Japan's  sovereignty  had  been  announced,  yielded  before  Japa- 
nese arms  within  a  few  days  in  the  northern  part  of  Formosa; 
but  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  island  they  gained  the  vic- 
tory over  the  Republic  only  after  months  of  fighting  and  delay. 
This  conflict  and  the  losses  thereby  occasioned  have  created 


JAPAN    AND    ITS    OUTLYING    ISLANDS  235 

subsequent  hostility,  but  this  has  been  far  less  in  those  hundred 
or  more  districts  where  Christianity  has  gained  a  foothold. 
Such  indirect  assistance  has  greatly  pleased  the  officials,  es- 
pecially in  the  case  of  the  civilized  aborigines.  In  fact,  it  has 
been  noted  that  in  one  district  at  least,  Japanese  Christians  have 
been  sent  as  officials  to  such  a  difficult  location.  Instead  of 
hampering  the  work,  therefore,  they  encourage  missions, 
though  officials  consider  the  missionaries  as  too  conservative 
and  regardful  of  Chinese  feelings.  When  to  this  semi-official 
endorsement  of  their  work  are  added  the  facts  that  the  Chinese 
now  feel  less  bound  by  their  old  traditions  because  they  live  in 
Japan  rather  than  in  China,  and  have  been  profoundly  moved 
by  seeing  the  fraternization  of  Japanese  and  Formosan  Chris- 
tians, one  can  readily  believe  that  the  only  thing  to  fear  as  to 
the  future  of  Formosa  is  what  Rev.  T.  Barclay  gave  expression 
to  at  the  London  Student  Volunteer  Conference  of  1900 :  "  My 
chief  apprehension  for  the  future  of  the  work  on  that  island 
does  not  arise  from  any  fear  of  what  the  rulers  may  do,  or 
from  any  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  people,  but  from  the  in- 
difference of  Christians  at  home,  the  unwillingness  of  divinity 
students  to  hear  the  call  the  Master  is  addressing  to  them." 


KOREA 

PART  I.  —  GENERAL 

This  name  is  a  modification  of  a  native  appellation  of  one 
section  of  the  country,  Korai.  It  is  popularly  known  as  the 
Land  of  Morning  Freshness  or  Serenity ;  though  since  1897  the 
official  designation  is  Dai  Han,  or  the  Great  Han. 

I.  The  Hermit  Land.  —  i.  The  Interior.  —  This  country, 
which  is  an  Oriental  Florida  in  form,  has  been  kept  hermetic- 
ally sealed  against  foreigners  for  many  centuries,  save  that  an 
occasional  shipwreck,  or  the  stealthy  entrance  of  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries, has  afforded  a  few  slight  glimpses  of  the  land.  Since 
its  opening  to  Occidental  nations  in  1882,  it  has  become  pretty 
well  known.  Looking  at  it  from  the  west,  the  country  roughly 
resembles  the  paper  portion  of  an  open  fan.  Along  the  eastern 
coast  extends  a  range  of  mountains  from  which  spurs  set  off 
toward  the  western  coast.  While  these  are  little  more  than 
hills,  in  many  sections  they  are  ranges  of  considerable  eleva- 
tion, as  toward  the  eastern  and  northern  boundaries.  The  ma- 
jority of  these  hills  are  denuded  of  forests,  or  covered  with 
chaparral,  but  are  in  many  cases  clothed  with  birch  and  pine 
forests  which,  according  to  Mr.  James,  are  succeeded  higher 
up  "  by  rich  open  meadows,  bright  with  flowers  of  every  im- 
aginable color,  where  sheets  of  blue  iris,  great  scarlet  tiger- 
lilies,  sweet-scented  yellow  day-lilies,  huge  orange  buttercups, 
or  purple  monkshood  delighted  the  eye;  and  beyond  were  bits 
of  park-like  country,  with  groups  of  spruce  and  fir  beautifully 
dotted  about  and  spangled  with  great  masses  of  deep  blue  gen- 
236 


KOREA  237 

tian,  columbines  of  every  shade  of  mauve  or  buff,  orchids  white 
and  red,  and  many  other  flowers."  Not  only  is  the  country  a 
vast  checkerboard  of  hills  and  mountains,  but  inter-communi- 
cation is  made  difficult  through  the  lack  of  large  rivers  and 
the  absence  of  even  respectable  roads. 

2.  Korean  Coasts.  —  As  the  traveler  steams  along  the  sh,ore 
he  is  impressed  with  the  barrenness  and  desolation  of  the  land, 
especially  as  there  are  few  inhabited  districts  near  the  sea.  On 
the  west  coast,  however,  the  almost  tideless  feature  that  he  has 
left  on  the  eastern  shore  is  replaced. by  exceedingly  high  tides 
rising  to  a  height  of  more  than  thirty  feet,  and  leaving  at  low 
water  great  stretches  of  mud  which  sometimes  extend  almost 
out  of  sight  from  the  land.  It  is  this  western  shore  that  is 
crowded  with  island  clusters  and  that  gave  the  King  the  name 
of  "  Lord  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands." 

3.  Cliniate  and  Health.  —  Of  these  the  well-known  traveler, 
Mrs.  Bishop,  writes  very  concisely,  though  she  might  have 
prolonged  the  three  words  *'  hot  and  rainy  "  into  a  story  of 
much  discomfort.  "  The  climate  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  fin- 
est and  healthiest  in  the  world.  Foreigners  are  not  afflicted 
by  any  climatic  maladies,  and  European  children  can  be 
brought  up  in  every  part  of  the  peninsula.  July,  August  and 
sometimes  the  first  half  of  September,  are  hot  and  rainy,  but 
the  heat  is  so  tempered  by  sea-breezes  that  exercise  is  always 
possible.  For  nine  months  in  the  year  the  skies  are  generally 
bright,  and  a  Korean  winter  is  absolutely  superb,  with  its  still 
atmosphere,  its  bright,  blue,  unclouded  sky,  its  extreme  dryness 
without  asperity,  and  its  crisp,  frosty  nights.  From  the  middle 
of  September  till  the  end  of  June,  there  are  neither  extremes  of 
heat  nor  cold  to  guard  against." 

II.  Korean  Resources.  —  i.  Like  China  and  India,  Korea 
is  almost  wholly  an  agricultural  country.  The  soil  is  fairly  fer- 
tile where  it  can  be  cultivated ;  and  when  "  water  is  abundant 
and  easily  manageable,  the  lower  valleys  are  utilized  for  rice, 
the  higher  portions  for  millet,  beans,  wheat,  maize,  cotton, 
hemp  and  tobacco."    Rice  is  not  merely  a  main  staple  of  food, 


.238  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

"but  is  in  many  ways  as  useful  almost  as  the  bamboo  or  palm  in 
tropical  lands,  Mr.  Gifford  writes:  "If  the  Koreans  could 
not  live  without  rice,  quite  as  little  could  they  do  without  rice 
straw.  With  it  the  common  people  prepare  the  feed  for  their 
stock,  thatch  their  roofs,  make  their  sandals,  braid  ropes,  weave 
cables  for  the  anchors  of  their  junks,  make  sails  and  mats  for 
their  floors,  tie  up  their  strings  of  ten  eggs  each,  and  make  the 
sprawling-  images  of  men  filled  with  small  coin  which  they 
throw  upon  the  roadside  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  first  moon  of 
the  year  to  carry  away  their  ill-luck."  Ginseng,  which  is  as 
really  useless  as  it  is  regarded  valuable  in  China,  is  collected 
and  cultivated  with  great  assiduity ;  since  it  brings  a  fabulous 
price  in  Chinese  markets,  $15  per  pound  often  being  paid. 
Forest  products  will  be  a  considerable  source  of  wealth  when 
improved  means  of  transportation  make  them  generally  avail- 
able. 

2.  Minerals  are  an  uncertain  factor  in  the  wealth  of  the  Em- 
pire, as  they  are  little  worked  by  the  Koreans,  and  foreigners 
are  practically  not  permitted  to  do  so.  Gold  is  present  and  ex- 
ported to  a  considerable  extent,  while  silver,  copper  and  iron 
are  also  obtained.  When  railways  and  roads  are  extended  and 
a  more  liberal  policy  toward  foreigners  is  adopted  in  the  mat- 
ter of  mines,  the  country  will  probably  develop  unexpected 
wealth, 

3.  The  products  of  the  ocean  might  be  a  far  greater  source 
of  profit  to  the  Koreans  than  is  now  the  case.  The  shores 
swarm  with  fish,  especially  along  the  eastern  coast ;  but,  as  in 
other  employments,  the  Korean  will  secure  a  large  catch  and 
then  spend  the  proceeds  before  continuing  in  the  work.  Japa- 
nese fishing  boats,  after  paying  the  tax  required,  are  each  able 
to  earn  as  much  as  $500  a  year,  which,  considering  wages  in 
Japan,  is  a  good  return  for  the  work  done. 

III.  Inhabitants  of  Korea.' — i.  Number  and  General 
Appearance.  —  The  estimates  of  the  population  differ  widely, 
varying  from  8,000,000  to  twice  that  figure.  Missionaries 
think    that  12,000,000  is  as  accurate  an    estimate  as  can    be 


KOREA  239 

given. ^  One  who  approaches  a  Korean  port  is  struck  by  the 
white  garments  of  the  people,  the  odd-shaped  indoor  and  out- 
door hats  of  the  married  men,  and  the  long  braids  and  hair 
parted  in  the  middle,  of  the  unmarried  youths,  which  make  it 
natural  for  the  average  foreigner  to  regard  them  as  maidens. 
The  selection  of  white  cloth  for  their  garments  is  an  unfortu- 
nate one  in  a  land  where  soap  is  a  luxury  indulged  in  by  com- 
paratively few.  It  is  not  just,  however,  to  trust  to  the  aphorism 
of  a  world  traveler  who  said  that  the  dirtiest  man  he  ever  saw 
was  a  clean  Korean.  Any  one  who  has  journeyed  inland  will 
testify  to  the  large  number  of  clean-dressed  persons,  especially 
the  women  of  the  higher  classes  whom  he  may  be  privileged 
to  get  a  glimpse  of.  Woolen  clothes  which  are  so  commonly 
worn  by  Occidentals  and  which  are  naturally  colored,  are  im- 
possible in  Korea,  as,  with  rare  exceptions,  sheep  are  not  raised, 
and  the  people  cannot  afford  to  buy  foreign  woolens.  It  should 
further  be  said  that  women  very  frequently  wear  blue  cotton 
garments,  while  boys  and  girls  wear  red  or  pink  clothing,  when 
they  have  reached  the  age  where  nakedness  is  abandoned. 
There  is  thus  on  a  Korean  street  a  play  of  colors,  "  green,  red, 
pink,  white  and  blue,  mingled  in  kaleidoscopic  richness.  Some- 
times all  of  these  are  found  in  a  single  costume.  In  style  there 
is  no  change.  The  fashion  once  set,  everybody  follows  it  and 
sticks  to  it.  An  odd  commentary  on  this  is  the  fact  that  the 
Chinese,  who  are  the  embodiment  of  conservatism,  call  the 
Koreans  old-fashioned.  The  present  style  of  dress  is  conceded 
to  be  about  400  years  old  and  corresponds  with  the  Chinese  cos- 
tume of  the  fifteenth  century.  In  dressing  the  hair,  the  Ko- 
reans use  a  pomade  into  the  composition  of  which  lampblack 
or  some  similar  substance  enters,  since  they  desire  the  hair  to  be 

1  "The  Korea  Review"  for  January,  1901,  states  that  the  official  report 
of  the  last  census  "gives  a  total  for  the  whole  country  of  5,608,351,  but  it  is 
evident  that  is  not  the  total  population  of  Korea.  It  may  be  that  minors 
were  not  included  in  this  count,  or  that  this  represents  only  that  portion  of 
the  population  which  pays  taxes  to  the  central  Government.  We  incline  to 
the  latter  hypothesis." 


240  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

as  black  and  shiny  as  possible.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
boys  soil  sadly  the  backs  and  shoulders  of  their  tunics  and  coats, 
their  braids  blowing  loosely  in  the  wind."  After  betrothal, 
the  hair  is  made  into  a  top-knot,  and  hence  the  clothing  of 
adults  is  free  from  this  stain. 

2.  Their  Homes.  —  These  differ  very  little  in  that  nearly 
all  of  them  are  of  one  story  and  are  made  on  the  same  general 
plan.  The  materials,  however,  vary  greatly,  ranging  from  the 
merest  brush  hovel,  unequal  to  an  Occidental  pigstye,  to  palaces 
of  officials  and  homes  of  the  wealthy,  which  are  of  brick  or 
stone  and  quite  attractive.  A  bird's-eye  view  of  a  collection 
of  ordinary  houses  reminds  one  of  horseshoes  or  Greek  geomet- 
rical patterns,  the  roofs  assuming  these  forms.  In  the  villages 
roofs  are  thatched  deeply  with  rice  straw,  but  in  the  cities  and 
the  case  of  the  well-to-do,  black  tiles  take  the  place  of  this  com- 
bustible covering.  The  tiled  roofs  are  gracefully  turned  up- 
ward at  the  corners,  and  in  all  cases  project  three  or  four  feet 
beyond  the  building  proper. 

In  making  floors,  the  Koreans  have  modified  the  k'ang  or 
brick  bed  prevalent  in  North  China.  "  By  the  use  of  stone  and 
mud,  perhaps  six  parallel  flues  are  built  up  which  converge  at 
each  end  into  an  opening  leading  outside,  one  into  the  chimney, 
the  other  into  the  fireplace.  These  flues  are  covered  over  with 
matched  stone  slabs,  and  a  smooth  coating  of  mud  is  laid  over 
all.  At  least  one  room  has  its  fireplace  so  constructed  that  a 
couple  of  round,  shallow  iron  kettles  for  boiling  rice  or  heat- 
ing water  may  be  fastened  into  them.  For  fuel  they  burn 
chopped  wood,  pine  brush  or  hay."  Brass-trimmed  cupboards 
and  an  occasional  painted  or  embroidered  screen,  more  or  less 
decorated,  and  the  greasy  lamp-stand  of  the  Orient  holding  a 
little  bowl  of  vegetable  oil,  with  a  bit  of  wick  resting  on  the 
edge,  are  the  common  furnishings  of  a  home. 

Women  are  more  or  less  segregated  from  the  family.  They 
are  nameless  after  childhood  and  are  the  tool  or  convenience  of 
man.  Slavery  exists  in  a  mild  form,  and  bond-women  who  con- 
stitute part  of  well-to-do  families,  are  a  feature  of  Korean  life 


KOREA  241 

that  awakens  compassion;  but  as  compared  with  the  female 
slaves  attached  to  magistracies  —  female  criminals  or  the  wives 
of  criminals  —  they  are  not  so  much  to  be  pitied. 

3.  Koreans  at  Work.  —  Casual  visitors  are  inclined  to  deny- 
that  they  do  any  genuine  work.  An  acquaintance  with  the  peo- 
ple shows,  however,  that  this  so-called  laziness  is  produced  by 
official  dishonesty  leading  to  the  utter  discouragement  of  the 
poor.  "  Not  only  must  the  regular  taxes  be  paid,  but  they  are 
subject  to  the  further  exaction  of  officials,  runners,  inspectors, 
policemen,  soldiers,  not  to  mention  the  bands  of  robbers  that 
roam  the  country  every  winter  and  spring."  They  certainly 
labor  at  a  disadvantage.  A  four-in-hand  shovel  managed  by 
a  fifth  man  who  holds  the  handle,  is  a  fair  illustration  of  Ko- 
rean waste  of  labor.  On  the  other  hand,  surprise  is  sure  to 
be  elicited  by  the  cruelly  heavy  loads  borne  by  many  porters  in 
a  frame  upon  their  shoulders.  Plowing  is  as  primitive  an 
operation  as  it  was  in  Palestine  in  the  days  of  our  Lord.  Not- 
withstanding the  severe  labor  undergone,  wages  only  amount 
to  from  ten  to  fourteen  cents  of  American  money,  though  it 
has  a  larger  purchasing  power  than  it  has  in  any  Western 
country. 

4.  The  Koreans,  however,  have  their  pleasures.  Like  the 
Japanese,  they  are  great  lovers  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  and 
are  as  fond  of  picnics  as  city  children  of  Occidental  lands. 
"  Several  scholars  will  go  to  some  picturesque  spot  and  there 
compose  spring  poetry  in  Chinese,  or  a  party  will  spend  hours 
in  the  practice  of  archery,  in  which  they  are  quite  skillful." 
The  clang  of  brass  gongs,  the  notes  of  tambourines,  circles  of 
young  men  and  boys  —  some  of  them  dressed  in  female  attire 
—  engaged  in  dancing,  are  pleasing  scenes.  Their  "  stone- 
fights  "  are  the  antipodes  of  this  sort  of  enjoyment  and  re- 
semble a  snow-ball  battle ;  they  are,  of  course,  not  infrequently 
accompanied  by  maiming  or  even  death.  Gambling  rises  to  the 
height  of  a  consuming  passion.  The  players,  after  parting 
with  everything  else,  have  been  known  to  stake  and  even  lose 
their  wives,  who  are  sold  into  slavery  because  of  an  unfortu- 


^4^  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

nate  strip  of  cardboard  the  width  of  one's  finger.     Liquor  is 
likewise  an  accompaniment  of  their  times  of  enjoyment. 

5.  Korean  Caste.  —  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  a  coun- 
try which  looks  to  China  for  its  ideals  and  has  depended  upon 
that  land  for  most  of  its  institutions,  should  possess  a  system  of 
caste,  not  on  the  same  basis,  indeed,  as  that  of  India,  but  still 
very  divisive  in  the  relations  between  man  and  man.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  C.  W.  Campbell,  "  it  appears  that  although  in  theory 
Korean  society  is  broadly  divided  into  an  upper,  a  middle  and 
lower  class,  the  social  grades  are  as  endless  as  the  Hindu  castes 
themselves,  all  being  distinguished  by  certain  honorific  forms 
of  speech  dictated  by  long-established  usage  and  insisted  upon, 
not  merely  as  a  matter  of  courtesy,  but  of  right  and  privilege." 
The  higher  orders  in  society  are  free  from  arrest,  except 
through  the  demand  of  the  Emperor  or  provincial  governor, 
and  even  then  only  for  the  gravest  crimes.  Should  these  per- 
sons engage  in  any  occupation  except  the  public  service  and 
teaching,  they  would  lose  standing  in  the  community.  This 
privileged  class  is  unfortunately  divided  into  factions,  and  it 
is  largely  owing  to  their  rivalries  that  emeutes  and  divisions 
have  proven  so  harmful  a  factor  in  recent  years.  The  occupa- 
tion of  Korea  by  two  rival  Powers  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
decade  was  largely  due  to  the  hopeless  maladministration  which 
led  the  lower  classes  to  rebel  against  the  official  squeezing  of 
these  privileged  parties. 

6.  Education  and  Literature.  —  Inasmuch  as  the  educated 
members  of  the  community  are  almost  invariably  of  official 
rank  or  aspirants  for  the  same,  education  is  naturally  along 
Confucian  lines.  Examinations  are  much  like  those  demanded 
by  China's  civil  service,  and  consequently  the  preparation  there- 
for is  substantially  the  same.  The  masses  are  not  able  to  read 
Chinese  books.  The  presence  of  an  alphabet,  very  simple  and 
effective,  has  made  it  possible,  however,  for  a  large  number  of 
the  poor  to  read  literature  of  a  lower  order. 

The  language  used  in  the  Empire  is  of  a  twofold  character. 
The  vernacular  is  like  the  Japanese  in  its  grammar,  but  differs 


KOREA  243 

from  it  in  vocabulary  which,  however,  it  somewhat  resembles 
in  the  South,  while  on  the  northern  border  it  is  affected  by 
the  Chinese.  From  the  Emperor  to  the  lowest  peasant  this  is 
commonly  spoken.  Missionaries  experience  difficulty  in  its 
acquisition  because  of  euphonic  changes,  honorifics  necessitat- 
ing the  use  of  different  forms  for  different  grades  of  society, 
and  the  presence  of  a  Sinico-Korean  which  would  correspond 
to  the  Latin-English  of  Milton  and  other  Latinized  writers. 
The  vernacular  is  also  written,  using  therefor  the  simple  Unmun 
alphabet  above  mentioned,  and  combinations  of  the  letters  in 
syllables.  These  are  often  learned  by  children  without  their 
being  conscious  of  an  underlying  alphabet.  It  is  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  missionary  agitation  and  use  and  of  recent  prog- 
ress, that  this  once  despised  script  is  becoming  officially  recog- 
nized and  widely  used.  Coordinately  with  the  vernacular  the 
Chinese  is  used  as  a  medium  of  correspondence,  in  official 
documents  and  as  the  vehicle  of  the  best  literature.  Most  of 
the  philosophical  and  religious  works  are  in  Chinese,  and  all 
who  make  any  pretensions  to  scholarship  must  read  and  write 
it  correctly.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  one-third  of  the  male 
population  is  tolerably  well  versed  in  both  this  language  and 
the  written  Korean. 

The  literature  of  the  country,  aside  from  Chinese  works,  is 
comparatively  simple,  since  the  literary  and  ethical  perfection 
of  the  Classics  has  prevented  the  development  of  native  literary 
talent.  A  few  primers  or  manuals  of  history  are,  however, 
printed  in  the  Unmun  for  the  use  of  women,  children  and  the 
uneducated.  This  is  true  also  of  books  on  etiquette  and  the 
various  duties  which  death  —  more  than  life  —  requires  in 
Korea.  Other  light  works  of  poetry,  etc.,  are  also  published; 
and  with  the  new  regime,  plus  missionary  effort,  the  body  of 
literature  is  increasing. 

IV.  Religions.  —  In  general  they  are  those  of  China, 
though  Taoism  has  no  special  following.  The  second  of  Chinese 
religions,  Buddhism,  until  within  a  few  years,  has  been  pro- 
hibited in  the  cities,  though  it  was  permitted  in  the  country 


244  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

districts.  Its  priesthood,  however,  is  so  grossly  ignorant  and 
despised  that  Buddhism  is  without  any  respectable  influence. 
Aside  from  the  nominal  hold  of  Confucian  ethics  upon  the 
upper  classes  and  the  widely  prevalent  reverence  or  worship 
of  objects  in  nature,  there  are  two  features  of  particular  promi- 
nence in  Korean  religious  life. 

1.  The  first  of  these  is  more  fully  set  forth  under  China 
and  need  not  be  dwelt  upon  here,  as  ancestral  worship  in  the 
two  empires  is  practically  the  same.  In  Korea,  however,  the 
reverence  and  worship  of  the  dead  are  maintained  more  strictly 
during  the  three  years  of  mourning  than  in  China  itself. 
"  Night  and  morning  the  children  offer  food,  meat  and  to- 
bacco before  the  tablet  in  the  room  where  the  dead  once  lived, 
making  besides  numerous  offerings  at  the  grave.  To  neglect 
this  is  to  make  oneself  an  outlaw  in  the  land  of  one's  fathers  — 
'  dogs  that  ought  not  to  live.'  "  It  is  the  most  frequent  cause 
of  lapses  from  Christianity  that  missionaries  have  to  cope  with. 

2.  A  universal  prevalence  of  spirit  worship,  —  demonism,  or 
more  strictly  speaking.  Shamanism,  —  is  the  second  dominat- 
ing feature  of  Korean  religion.  This  form  of  worship  is  cal- 
culated to  cost  Koreans  $2,500,000  each  year,  and  hence  is  an 
economic  waste  as  well  as  a  system  of  unspeakable  bondage. 
One  cannot  enter  a  house  without  being  puzzled  by  a  bundle 
of  straw  set  on  some  sticks,  a  shelf  containing  a  scrap  of  cloth 
or  a  bit  of  straw  rope  and  other  forms  of  spirit  "  nests."  Be- 
fore these  objects,  which  are  practically  fetishes,  offerings  are 
placed  on  the  first,  second,  third  and  fifteenth  of  the  month. 
"  Again  in  the  shed  room  used  for  kitchen,  the  fetish  of  the 
kitchen  may  be  seen  in  a  piece  of  cloth  or  paper  fastened  to  the 
wall  above  the  fireplace."  But  outside  the  houses,  no  less  than 
within,  are  omnipresent  evidences  of  all  grades  of  spirits.  Here 
is  a  small  tree  by  the  roadside,  to  the  limbs  of  which  are  at- 
tached rags  and  pieces  of  paper,  some  containing  written 
prayers.  Old  women  as  they  pass  "  pause  and  bow  reverently, 
rubbing  together  their  palms.  An  evil  spirit  dwells  in  the  tree 
and  it  is  considered  wise  in  travelers  to  show  him  some  mark 


KOREA  245 

of  attention,  exhibited  in  these  different  ways."  On  mountain 
passes  the  traveler  notes  a  spirit  shrine,  while  near  many  a 
country  village  may  be  seen  another  where  local  spirits  are 
worshiped  every  three  years,  the  expense  being  borne  by  public 
taxation. 

The  all-powerful  Shaman,  if  a  man,  is  called  pansu ;  if  a 
woman,  mutang.  Concerning  the  latter,  Mr.  Gifford  writes  r 
"  If  you  could  only  forget  the  horrid  meaning  of  it  all,  the 
dancing  of  the  mutang  in  her  worship  in  time  to  the  beat  of 
the  gong  and  the  drum  in  the  shape  of  an  hour-glass,  would 
impress  one  as  quite  picturesque.  She  is  supposed  to  be  under 
the  control  of  a  spirit  of  influence  in  the  realm  of  darkness 
who,  for  a  consideration,  can  be  induced  to  appease  the  in- 
jured dignity  of  some  malignant  spirit  who  is  afflicting  a 
household.  She  also  claims  the  power  to  foretell  future  events. 
No  matter  what  her  position  in  life,  the  calling  of  a  woman  by 
a  spirit  to  become  a  mutang  is  considered  irresistible.  She 
will  make  plenty  of  money  though  at  a  high  price ;  for  she 
becomes  a  social  outcast,  not  on  moral  grounds,  but  by  reason 
of  her  vocation.  The  pansu  deals  directly  with  the  evil  spirits, 
which  he  drives  away  by  repeated  exorcisms  from  a  book 
handed  down  from  the  earliest  ages,  whose  words  are  mean- 
ingless at  the  present  time."  The  baleful  influence  of  these 
Shamans  may  be  imagined  from  the  fact  that  in  the  city  of 
Seoul  alone,  3,000  sorceresses  carry  on  their  devilish  work, 
earning  on  an  average  fifteen  Japanese  dollars  a  month  apiece. 

V.  The  New  Regime.  —  i.  Leading  Features.  — This  may 
be  said  to  have  begun  when  in  1876  Japan  for  a  second  time 
invaded  the  country  and  treaty  relations  were  established.  Not 
until  1882,  however,  was  the  first  treaty  with  an  Occidental 
power,  the  United  States,  consummated.  In  1884  occurred  the 
historic  emeute,  which  brought  Korea  into  wider  relations  with 
the  outside  world.  From  that  time  onward  there  has  been 
spasmodic  progress  with  the  serious  interruption  caused  by 
the  tripartite  war  of  1894-95  between  Korea,  China  and  Japan. 
Proceedings  not  very  creditable  to  Japan  and  Russia  followed. 


246  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

but  in  1897  the  King  assumed  the  name  and  authority  of  Em- 
peror. The  privileges  of  the  aristocracy  have  been  abolished 
for  the  most  part,  and  the  selection  of  government  officers  is 
made  by  the  ministers,  subject  to  the  Emperor's  approval. 
Internal  jealousies  between  the  higher  classes  have  led  to  con- 
stant friction  and  occasional  outbreak.  The  ten  reforms  ad- 
vocated by  Minister  Yi,  who  in  1898  represented  Korea  to  the 
United  States,  are  still  crying  to  be  introduced,  though  a  good 
beginning  has  been  made  in  some  of  these  directions.  The  last 
four  of  these  are  worth  quoting  at  this  late  date.  "  No.  VII. 
The  teaching  of  Korea  Western  knowledge  by  nations  specially 
qualified,  viz. :  Germany  for  the  army,  England  for  the  navy 
and  finance,  America  for  steam  and  electricity,  Russia  for 
cavalry  drill,  Japan  for  police,  and  China  for  silk  manufacture. 
No.  VIII.  Government  reform  on  the  basis  of  English  and 
German  law.  No.  IX.  The  prohibition  of  white  as  the  ordi- 
nary dress.  No.  X.  The  abolition  of  Chinese  literature  and  the 
establishment  of  Unmun  as  the  national  script."  If  we  add  to 
these  changes  affecting  the  material  interests  of  the  Empire 
the  general  diffusion  of  enlightenment,  and  the  acceptance  of 
righteousness  and  true  holiness,  Korea  will  indeed  become  a 
land  of  "  morning  serenity." 

2.  Problems.  —  The  political  one  is  very  perplexing.  With 
a  civilization  and  national  character  essentially  Chinese,  Korea 
must  strongly  incline  to  her  ancient  neighbor  on  the  west.  Yet 
Japan  and  Russia  are  ever  on  the  alert,  each  striving  to  gain 
the  leading  place  in  her  counsels,  while  Great  Britain  in  the 
person  of  Dr.  Brown,  still  has  her  hand  on  the  Imperial  purse 
—  undoubtedly  for  Korea's  good.  A  puppet  Emperor,  sur- 
rounded by  native  factions  with  no  broad  outlook,  finds  it 
most  difficult  to  steer  the  ship  of  state  between  Scylla  and 
Charybdis,  especially  as  financial  weakness  is  ever  present. 

The  industrial  situation  is  an  even  greater  occasion  of  solici- 
tude. The  manufacture  of  white  cotton  cloth  which  gave  em- 
ployment to  a  large  percentage  of  the  people,  is  rapidly  ceas- 
ing, now  that  ports  are  opened  and  cheaper  foreign  cottons  are 


KOREA 


247 


deluging  the  country.  Similarly  metal  workers  find  their  oc- 
cupation largely  gone  because  of  Japanese  importations,  while 
cheap  American  kerosene  practically  puts  an  end  to  castor-bean 
culture.  The  emptied  kerosene  cans  make  the  bucket  and 
crock-makers'  trade  all  but  obsolete.  To  raise  money  the  na- 
tives ship  from  the  country  their  beans  and  fish,  thus  robbing 
hungry  mouths  of  much  needed  food.  An  increasing  official 
class  with  a  fad  for  Western  inventions,  from  a  watch  to  a 
steamship,  squander  the  nation's  money  and  add  to  the  heavy 
burdens  of  the  impoverished  poor.  Having  no  new  callings  to 
engage  in,  "  the  land  is  swarming  with  idlers  and  petty  mer- 
chants who  make  a  doubtful  living  in  handling  foreign  goods." 
The  Empire  has  reached  an  ominous  crisis  in  its  history,  but 
any  change  must  necessarily  be  for  the  better. 


PART  II.  —  MISSIONARY 

Save  in  uncivilized  lands,  no  mission  field  has  yielded  such 
large  results  in  so  brief  a  time  as  Korea,  the  Hermit  Kingdom 
of  less  than  twenty  years  ago.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  in 
view  of  the  attitude  of  the  rulers  toward  foreigners  until  its 
recent  opening,  and  especially  when  one  considers  the  awful 
persecutions  of  Catholic  missionaries  and  their  converts  in  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 

I.  The  Beginnings.  —  Though  Japan  was  the  first  power 
to  conclude  a  complete  treaty  with  Korea,  it  was  only  six  years 
later,  in  1882,  that  the  United  States  led  the  van  of  Western 
nations  in  securing  treaty  rights. 

I.  The  Manchurian  Wedge.  —  Missionaries  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  have  the  honor  of  doing 
Protestantism's  pioneer  work  for  the  Hermit  Kingdom.  Three 
missionaries  of  that  Church  laboring  in  the  adjacent  province 
of  Manchuria  became  interested  in  these  people,  and  Rev.  John 
Ross,  D.D.,  was  enabled  to  translate  portions  of  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Luke  into  their  tongue,  and  eventually  to  complete  the  en- 


248  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tire  New  Testament.  The  missionaries  were  free  to  itinerate 
along  the  northwestern  border  where  Korean  merchants  con- 
gregated for  purposes  of  trade,  and  through  them  and  others 
who  carried  into  the  Kingdom  Scripture  portions,  the  pre- 
liminary seed-sowing  was  accomplished.  The  earliest  work 
was  done  in  1873,  and  in  the  course  of  time,  Dr.  Ross  and  Mr. 
Webster  at  great  personal  peril  penetrated  the  northern  val- 
leys where  the  Word  of  God  had  been  carried  and  to  their  joy 
found  eighty-five  men  who  were  deemed  worthy  of  baptism, 
besides  many  others  who  were  reserved  for  further  instruction. 

2.  The  second  step  taken  was  by  a  missionary  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Board,  North,  Dr.  H.  N.  Allen.  A  Korean  of  rank, 
named  Rijutei,  was  converted  about  1880  while  representing 
his  Government  in  Japan.  Perceiving  the  vast  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  Christianity,  this  official,  who  in  the  end  proved 
a  very  imperfect  Christian,  earnestly  begged  that  missionaries 
might  be  sent  to  his  people.  In  1884  the  Presbyterian  Board 
responded  to  his  appeal  by  appointing  to  Seoul  Dr.  Allen,  whom 
the  United  States  Minister  at  once  made  physician  to  the  Lega- 
tion, thus  securing  his  residence  and  safety  at  a  time  when  the 
promulgation  of  Christianity  was  strictly  forbidden.  Near  the 
close  of  that  same  year  at  an  official  dinner  six  Koreans  were 
killed  and  the  King's  nephew  seriously  wounded  as  the  result 
of  a  palace  intrigue.  Prince  Min's  injuries  were  very  serious 
and  the  native  practitioners  proposed  to  pour  wax  into  them. 
They  were  astonished  to  see  Dr.  Allen's  skill  in  washing  and 
sewing  up  the  wounds,  and  when  the  Prince  speedily  recov- 
ered, the  missionary  doctor's  reputation  was  unbounded.  The 
King  forthwith  appointed  him  court  physician  and  fitted  up  a 
government  hospital  which  has  been  very  useful  ever  since. 

3.  For  some  years  only  preparatory  work  could  be  done, 
owing  to  the  official  prohibition  of  Christianity ;  but  during 
this  period  came  the  opportunity  for  missionaries  to  perfect 
themselves  in  language,  as  well  as  to  prepare  helps  for  its  study, 
translate  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  prepare  school-books 
and  teach  some  along  secular  lines.     Medical  work  was  nat- 


KOREA  249 

urally  a  very  great  ally,  especially  as  it  often  reached  persons 
of  much  influence. 

II.  The  Present  Force.  —  i.  The  societies  laboring  here 
are  the  Presbyterians  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  —  both 
the  northern  and  the  southern  branches  of  the  Church,  —  and 
the  Presbyterians  of  Australia,  the  two  Methodist  Boards  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  International  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association.  From  England  the  main  workers  are  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
with  the  assistance  in  their  hospital  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Peter's, 
Kilburn,  besides  the  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  and  three  ladies  supported  by  the  Missionary  Pence  As- 
sociation. 

2.  With  the  exception  of  the  common  ground  at  Seoul, 
there  is  a  pretty  fair  distribution  of  the  forces  throughout  the 
Empire.  On  the  east  coast  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula  work  is  less  vigorously  carried  on  than  at  the  two 
points  of  Pyeng  Yang  and  Seoul.  There  is  a  partial  under- 
standing among  the  leading  societies  that  in  the  future  occupa- 
tion of  the  country,  regard  shall  be  had  to  such  a  location  of 
missionaries  as  shall  insure  the  best  results,  both  for  evangel- 
ization and  for  comity. 

3.  A  peculiarity  of  Korean  missions  is  the  unusually  promi- 
nent part  that  the  natives  take  in  the  work.  The  more  than 
eight  thousand  communicants  won  have  been  educated  to  be- 
lieve that  their  main  business  as  Christians  is  to  live  the  divine 
life  and  to  carry  the  gospel  to  others.  How  effectual  such 
training  is  may  be  gathered  from  the  achievements  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  Pyeng  Yang  district.  Dr.  Vinton,  in  writing  of 
the  activities  of  that  city  where  the  Presbyterians  and  Meth- 
odists are  working,  said  in  1900:  "This  station  was  opened 
five  years  ago.  Now  sixteen  adult  missionaries,  including 
wives,  are  working  under  two  boards,  shepherding  a  flock  of 
2,500  church  members.  The  parish  is  300  miles  long  and  has 
more  than  300  preaching  places.  Nearly  4,000  catechumens 
or  applicants  are  enrolled  and  under  instruction  preparatory  to 


250  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

baptism.  The  rate  of  increase  is  100  communicants  and  over 
230  catechumens  a  month.  These  converts  are  brought  in 
chiefly  by  their  own  countrymen;  for  the  foreign  force  can 
find  time  only  for  instructing,  examining  and  baptizing.  This 
work  is  practically  self-supporting,  except  for  the  salaries  and 
personal  expenses  of  foreign  missionaries,  and  the  coming  har- 
vest promises  to  be  far  beyond  the  strength  of  the  reapers, 
unless  their  number  be  speedily  doubled  or  trebled.  If  any 
Korean  Christian  has  not  an  evangelizing  spirit,  his  fitness  as 
a  candidate  for  baptism  is  strongly  doubted.  Wherever  a  man 
or  woman  has  taken  the  name  of  Christian,  there  the  fact  is 
being  published  and  evidenced,  according  to  that  individual's 
light,  by  good  works  and  by  an  effort  to  lead  others  to  Christ. 
Each  of  the  stronger  congregations  has  from  one  to  four  home 
missionaries  of  its  own  sent  out  to  preach  the  gospel  in  the  re- 
gions beyond."  Not  all  fields  are  so  remarkable  as  this  district 
where  forty-two  per  cent,  of  Korea's  Protestant  converts  are 
found. 

III.  The  Prevailing  Policy  of  Work.  —  This  peninsula 
was  entered  at  a  period  when  missionary  methods  had  passed 
the  experimental  stage,  and  the  first  missionaries  were  wise 
enough  to  do  much  thinking  during  the  time  when  no  very  ag- 
gressive efforts  were  possible.  The  visit  of  Dr.  Nevius  of 
China  in  1890,  before  much  had  been  openly  attempted,  in- 
spired several  leading  men  to  follow  the  plan  which  he  had 
tried  with  mingled  success  and  failure  in  his  Shantung  field. 
While  one  of  the  Methodist  societies  and  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  are  not  influenced  largely  by  this 
modified  form  of  Dr.  Nevius's  plan,  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
policy  of  the  other  churches  in  the  Empire.  As  it  is  more 
workable  than  the  original  scheme  of  Dr.  Nevius,  found  want- 
ing in  China,  some  of  its  main  features  will  be  given. 

I.  Difficulties  which  the  plan  aims  to  obviate  are  thus  stated 
by  Dr.  Avison :  "  You  send  a  missionary  to  a  country  and  he 
takes  his  money  with  him.  He  selects  a  man  and  pays  him 
to  be  his  language  teacher.     He  wants  a  Christian  helper  and 


KOREA  251 

pays  him  to  help  him  preach.  By  and  by  he  gathers  around 
him  a  few  Christians  and  in  a  Httle  while  they  want  a  church 
building  in  which  to  worship;  and  again  the  missionary  puts 
his  hand  into  the  treasury,  brings  out  the  money  and  builds  a 
church.  Then  they  want  some  one  to  take  charge  of  the  church 
and  there  are  the  current  expenses  to  meet.  Again  the  mis- 
sionary is  called  upon  ;  getting  mission  money,  he  pays  the  run- 
ning expenses  of  the  church.  By  and  by  they  want  a  preacher, 
but  before  they  can  get  the  preacher  they  must  have  the  man 
educated ;  and  so  the  missionary  comes  again  to  the  front  and 
builds  a  school  and  equips  it  and  puts  in  his  teachers  and  pro- 
duces more  teachers  and  preachers  and  gives  them  to  the 
church.  But  having  taken  these  men  from  their  work  and 
educated  them  and  put  them  into  the  church  where  they  are 
not  able  to  carry  on  their  ordinary  work,  why  of  course  the 
missionary  must  come  on  again  and  pay  these  men.  Very  soon 
the  missionary,  instead  of  being  simply  looked  upon  as  a 
preacher  of  the  gospel  for  these  people,  introducing  a  principle 
into  their  minds  which  is  to  develop  and  make  them  into  a 
different  class  of  men  and  women,  is  regarded  as  the  banker 
of  the  church  and  of  the  people,  and  this  is  viewed  as  his  chief 
use.  ...  It  is  not  hard  for  a  man  who  does  not  believe  any- 
thing particularly,  to  believe  in  Christianity.  He  is  ready  to 
profess  his  belief  in  God,  in  Christ,  in  anything,  if  he  can  see 
five  or  ten  dollars  a  month  at  the  other  end  of  it.  So  there  is 
a  tendency  for  men  to  come  to  the  church,  or  to  apply  for  mem- 
bership in  it,  and  to  be  very  religious  and  devout,  so  that  they 
deceive  even  the  missionaries.  Such  men  get  into  the  church 
with  the  idea  of  being  preachers  or  teachers  or  any  thing  that 
brings  in  money.  So  we  are  apt  to  develop  men  who  are  not 
sincere  in  their  professions  of  belief.  Then  they  are  sent  out 
to  preach  and  are  paid  by  the  missionary.  Those  to  whom 
they  preach,  knowing  that  they  are  paid  for  their  preaching, 
smile,  saying :  '  That  is  all  right ;  he  knows  what  he  is  about,' 
being  suspicious  of  his  preaching.  How  much  will  they  be- 
lieve of  what  he  tells  them  ?  " 


252  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

2.  Some  of  the  leading  principles  of  this  scheme  as  set  forth 
in  a  paper  read  at  the  Ecumenical  Conference  of  1900  and  pre- 
pared by  its  leading  Korean  exponent,  Dr.  Underwood,  are 
the  following:  (i)  No  complete  church  organization  is  aimed 
at  at  first ;  it  is  made  as  simple  as  possible,  and  the  leader  may 
be  one  of  the  deacons  or  an  elder.  (2)  Church  architecture  is 
adapted  to  the  style  and  ability  of  the  people,  churches  being 
well  built  and  in  accordance  with  native  ideas  in  cities,  and 
small  thatch-roofed  chapels  sufficing  in  places  with  few  Chris- 
tians. (3)  The  responsibility  of  giving  the  gospel  to  the 
heathen  is  placed  upon  the  converts,  thus  developing  local  re- 
sponsibility and  individual  activity.  Often  the  Christians  send 
out  selected  men  to  preach  in  their  stead,  and  in  exceptional 
cases  the  societies  bear  half  of  the  expense  of  helpers  sanctioned 
by  the  mission.  (4)  Where  congregations  warrant  it,  church 
schools  should  be  supported  by  the  church,  under  missionary  or 
other  competent  supervision.  (5)  High  schools,  or' academies, 
should  be  provided  by  the  mission  at  its  larger  stations,  the  mis- 
sion furnishing  the  foreign  teacher,  most  of  the  salaries  of  the 
native  teachers  and  the  beginning  of  an  educational  plant. 
From  the  outset  the  natives  are  to  pay  for  lighting,  heating, 
janitor  and  the  board  of  pupils.  (6)  Training  the  workers  is 
confessed  to  be  the  great  problem,  as  yet  unsolved.  Still  they 
believe  that  a  satisfactory  pastorate  will  yet  be  secured,  and 
meanwhile  the  leaders  in  city  and  country  work  are  gathered 
into  Bible  and  training  classes  once  or  twice  a  year.  The  in- 
struction there  given  is  very  biblical  and  practical,  and  the  oc- 
casion of  their  coming  together  is  made  use  of  for  special  evan- 
gelistic efforts.  These  training  classes  are  also  invaluable  in 
other  directions,  as  witness  this  extract  from  one  of  Mr.  Baird's 
reports :  "  Their  talking  together  about  their  common  faith 
and  hope,  their  stories  of  persecution  and  their  accounts  of 
the  pain  and  sorrow  connected  with  tearing  loose  from  heathen 
superstitions,  their  prayer  and  song  together  in  praise  of  a 
common  Lord,  have  much  to  do  in  eradicating  long-standing 
local  and  sectional  jealousies  and  helping  fulfill  the  Lord's 


KOREA  253 

prayer  that  *  they  may  be  one.'  "  (7)  A  new  departure  is  made 
in  that  native  Christians  are  required  to  pay  for  books  and 
other  publications  at  a  price  almost  meeting  their  cost.  (8) 
Similarly,  in  medical  work  natives  pay  for  medicines,  food, 
etc.,  at  the  hospitals  and  dispensaries;  while  the  rich  pay  full 
price  for  everything  of  the  sort. 

3.  Naturally  difficulties  have  beset  the  enterprise.  The 
fact  that  other  plans  are  being  followed  by  some  of  the  mission- 
aries in  the  same  field  occasions  discontent  on  the  part  of 
many  of  the  Koreans  who  are  not  willing  to  make  much  sac- 
rifice for  the  gospel's  sake.  Then  the  poverty  of  the  Chris- 
tians is  very  great.  Dr.  Underwood  says  on  this  point :  "  A 
man  with  a  capital  of  one  or  two  hundred  dollars  would  be 
considered  well-to-do  and  almost  a  gentlemen  of  leisure. 
The  poorer  classes,  from  which  in  the  main  our  church  mem- 
bers come,  live  largely  in  low-thatched  mud  huts  with  one,  or 
perhaps  two,  small  rooms  with  a  hole  in  one  side  covered  with 
paper  in  lieu  of  a  window  and  a  small  rough  lattice  door. 
Shan-tung  is,  I  believe,  classed  as  one  of  the  poorer  provinces  of 
China;  and  yet  Chinese  merchants,  carpenters,  builders  and 
others  from  that  section  who  have  come  to  Korea,  tell  us 
that  the  Koreans  are  far  poorer  than  the  men  of  their  province. 
It  certainly  cannot  be  said  that  the  measure  of  success  that  has 
been  meted  to  our  work  is  due  to  Korea's  wealth."  A  peculiar 
temptation  arising  from  the  poverty  of  the  higher  castes  causes 
trouble.  Those  who  have  no  money  to  aid  in  church-building 
and  who  are  too  high  in  the  social  scale  to  do  manual  labor, 
strongly  object  to  aiding  the  enterprise.  The  difficulty  has 
more  than  once  been  overcome  by  the  missionary  who  takes  off 
his  coat  and  joins  the  church  members  in  doing  any  menial 
work  that  is  called  for  in  building.  As  for  the  very  poor,  con- 
tributions in  kind  enable  even  these  to  do  some  little  thing  for 
the  work. 

4.  That  the  plan  succeeds  has  already  appeared.  Dr.  Un- 
derwood points  to  the  186  Presbyterian  churches  in  Korea,  out 
of  a  total  of  188  at  the  time  of  writing,  which  are  entirely 


254  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

self-supporting.  They  had  an  adult  membership  of  2,873,  who 
during  the  preceding  year  contributed  out  of  their  deep  poverty 
Yen  6,274.43,  about  $3,200.  At  a  rate  of  $1.50  per  day,  which 
a  laborer  of  their  type  might  receive  in  America,  this  would  be 
equal  to  about  $32,000,  a  contribution  of  $11.13  P^r  member. 
And  this  remarkable  sum  does  not  include  a  large  amount  of 
produce  of  various  kinds  and  voluntary  labor  coming  from 
these  members.  The  greatest  value  of  the  method,  however, 
is  that  exemplified  in  the  Pyeng  Yang  field,  described  above. 

IV.  A  Hopeful  Outlook.  —  i.  Government  favor  has 
been  almost  continuous  in  recent  years.  The  relations  between 
the  Emperor  and  Dr.  Allen,  who  opened  the  country  to  the 
foreign  missionary  and  who  is  now  United  States  Minister  to 
Korea,  are  very  cordial ;  and  women  physicians  have  had  a 
strong  influence  in  his  palace.  The  heir-apparent  was  sent  to 
America  in  1897  by  the  Emperor  to  pursue  his  education  under 
the  oversight  of  Secretary  Ellinwood  of  the  Presbyterian 
Board,  North,  another  indication  of  friendliness  to  missions. 
Indeed,  all  who  have  the  country's  welfare  at  heart  recognize 
the  importance  of  the  new  life  that  comes  from  Christianity, 
even  if  they  are  not  as  frank  as  one  of  the  Korean  leaders  who 
said  to  Mr.  Speer :  "  The  only  hope  of  the  country  is  in  the 
churches.  There  is  no  moral  character  in  Korea.  It  is  being 
created  in  the  churches.  There  is  no  cohesion,  or  unity,  or 
confidence  among  men.  There  is  no  company  of  men,  however 
small,  capable  of  acting  together.  The  churches  are  raising  up 
bands  of  men  who  know  how  to  combine  for  a  common  object, 
who  are  quickened  intellectually,  and  are  full  of  character, 
courage  and  hope.  To  convert  and  educate  the  common  people 
is  the  only  hope  of  the  land."  These  facts  ought  to  encourage 
the  friends  of  missions,  even  in  the  face  of  possible  impending 
calamity  arising  from  the  chronically  predicted  conflict  be- 
tween Japan  and  Russia  over  this  fair  apple  of  discord. 

2.  One  gains  the  most  hopeful  presages  for  the  future  of 
the  Korean  Church  from  the  lives  of  many  of  its  leading  Chris- 
tians.    Multitudes  of  the  church  members  are  ignorant  and 


KOREA  255 

Stupid,  as  well  as  unclean  and  erring.  But  that  they  are  likely 
to  endure  for  Christ's  sake  was  abundantly  proved  when  in 
1866  the  river  Han  ran  to  the  sea  red  with  the  blood  of 
thousands  of  Catholic  believers  who  met  death  rather  than  sur- 
render their  faith.  It  is  these  Christians,  and  not  so  much  the 
missionaries,  who  are  doing  the  marvelous  work  of  evangeliz- 
ing northern  Korea.  And  it  is  they  who  furnish  the  material 
for  such  touching  character  studies  as  appear  in  the  pages  of 
Mr.  Gale,  or  in  the  more  vivid  pictures  from  Korean  life  drawn 
by  Mr.  Speer  —  such,  for  instance,  as  the  account  given  in 
his  "  Presbyterian  Foreign  Missions,"  pages  169-172,  of  the 
examination  of  the  candidate  for  Church  membership  in  the 
Pyeng  Yang  Church,  or  the  inimitable  sketch  of  Blind  An, 
converted  sorcerer  and  preacher  to  women,  found  on  pages 
175-178  of  the  same  volume. 

3.  The  well  known  traveler,  Mrs.  Bishop,  in  her  work  on 
that  land,  depicts  a  scene  at  Pyeng  Yang  which  rightly  sym- 
bolizes the  Christian  situation  in  Korea.  Describing  the  meet- 
ings with  inquirers  and  Christians,  she  says  :  "  At  all  these  even- 
ing meetings  the  room  was  crammed  within  and  without  by 
men,  reverent  and  earnest  in  manner,  some  of  whom  had  been 
shunned  for  their  wickedness  even  in  a  city  '  the  smoke  of 
which  '  in  her  palmy  days  was  said  '  to  go  up  like  the  smoke 
of  Sodom,'  but  who,  transformed  by  a  power  outside  them- 
selves, were  then  leading  exemplary  lives.  There  were  groups 
in  the  dark,  groups  round  the  candles  on  the  floor,  groups  in 
the  doorways,  and  every  face  was  aglow  except  that  of  poor, 
bewildered  Im.  One  old  man,  with  his  forehead  in  the  dust, 
prayed  like  a  child  that,  as  the  letter  bearing  to  New  York  an 
earnest  request  for  more  teachers  was  on  its  way,  '  the  wind 
and  sea  might  waft  it  favorably,'  and  that  when  it  was  read,  the 
eyes  of  the  foreigners  might  be  opened  '  to  see  the  sore  need 
of  people  in  a  land  where  no  one  knows  anything,  and  where 
all  believe  in  devils  and  are  dying  in  the  dark.'  " 

Later  this  same  Christian  traveler  writes  a  stirring  appeal 
to  the  Presbyterian  Board :  "  The  Pyeng  Yang  work  which  I 


256  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

saw  last  winter  and  which  is  still  going  on  in  much  the  same 
way,  is  the  most  impressive  mission  work  I  have  seen  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  It  shows  that  the  Spirit  of  God  still  moves 
on  the  earth,  and  that  the  old  truths  of  sin  and  judgment  to 
come,  of  the  divine  justice  and  love,  of  the  atonement  and  of 
the  necessity  for  holiness,  have  the  same  power  as  in  the  Apos- 
tolic days  to  transform  the  lives  of  men.  What  I  saw  and 
heard  has  greatly  strengthened  my  own  faith.  Now  a  door  is 
opened  wide  in  Korea,  how  wide  only  those  can  know  who 
are  on  the  spot.  Very  many  are  prepared  to  renounce  devil 
worship  and  to  worship  the  true  God  if  only  they  are  taught 
how,  and  large  numbers  more  who  have  heard  and  received  the 
gospel  are  earnestly  craving  to  be  instructed  in  its  rules  of 
holy  living.  I  dread  indescribably  that  unless  many  men  and 
women  experienced  in  winning  souls  are  sent  speedily,  the 
door  which  the  Church  declines  to  enter  will  close  again." 


XI 

CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES 

PART  L  — GENERAL 

I.  The  Middle  Kingdom.  —  The  most  populous  empire  in 
the  world  and  one  whose  territory  exceeds  that  of  all  other 
powers,  save  that  of  England  and  Russia,  has  at  the  close  of 
the  century  attracted  the  utmost  interest,  owing  to  the  startling 
events  of  the  year  1900. 

I.  Extent.  —  The  Chinese  Empire,  about  one-third  of 
whose  area  constitutes  China  Proper,  covers  a  territory  almost 
one-eleventh  less  than  that  of  Europe,  exclusive  of  Russia.  It 
is  more  than  one-third  as  large  as  the  continent  of  Africa  and 
its  area  equals  that  of  the  United  States,  the  provinces  of 
Ontario  and  Quebec  and  all  of  Mexico  to  a  point  beyond  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 

As  to  China  Proper,  it  is  equal  to  nearly  one  and  a  half  times 
that  part  of  the  United  States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  so  would  furnish  material  for  ten  United  Kingdoms.  If 
Mukden,  in  Manchuria,  were  placed  upon  Boston,  which  has 
approximately  its  latitude,  China's  southernmost  island  would 
lie  upon  Yucatan,  and  Havana  would  correspond  in  approx- 
imate position  with  Canton.  Kansas  City  would  then  be  near 
the  northwestern  boundary,  if  the  extension  of  Kan-su  be  ex- 
cluded, and  the  northern  border  would  correspond  to  a  line 
passing  through  Chicago  and  Detroit  back  to  Boston  again.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  all  of  China,  with  the  exception  of  a  nar- 
row southern  fringe,  lies  in  the  temperate  zone,  and  that  very 
little  of  it  reaches  much  higher  than  the  northern  boundary  of 
Massachusetts. 

257 


258  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

2.  Configuration. — This  great  Empire  is  often  regarded 
—  especially  since  the  recent  war  has  called  attention  to  its 
northeastern  section,  —  as  a  land  of  level  plains,  a  most  er- 
roneous impression.  If  China  Proper  is  divided  by  the  mer- 
idian passing  through  Canton  and  by  the  parallel  drawn  west- 
ward from  the  mouth  of  the  Yang-tsze  River,  it  may  be  roughly 
stated  that  the  level  plains  of  China  are  found  in  the  north- 
eastern section,  while  its  hills  constitute  the  southeastern  por- 
tion. To  the  west  of  the  Canton  meridian  the  country  is  es- 
sentially mountainous,  the  ranges  increasing  in  height  as  they 
pass  westward  toward  the  lofty  mountains  of  Tibet. 

Another  feature  that  strikes  one  as  the  map  is  examined  is 
its  regular  coast  line,  on\y  broken  by  the  camel-head  promontory 
of  eastern  Shan-tung.  It  will  be  further  noted  that  if  the  sta- 
tionary leg  of  a  compass  is  fixed  on  the  city  of  I-chang  lo- 
cated on  the  middle  Yang-tsze,  and  the  other  leg  describes  a 
circle  with  a  radius  reaching  the  coast,  all  of  China  Proper 
will  be  included  within  it  with  only  a  little  of  the  dependencies 
in  addition. 

3.  Scenery.  —  This  differs  greatly  according  to  the  varied 
character  of  the  country.  In  the  Great  Plain  of  the  north- 
eastern section,  some  700  miles  in  length  and  averaging  per- 
haps 200  miles  in  breadth  in  the  North  and  400  in  the  South, 
the  scene  is  a  distinctively  agricultural  one.  Vast  populations 
are  here  dwelling  in  villages,  which  are  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  carefully  cultivated  farms  or  gardens.  A  census  made  by 
missionaries  has  shown  that  quite  a  territory  of  farming  coun- 
try in  Shan-tung  contains  an  average  of  over  2,000  inhabitants 
per  square  mile,  while  in  the  southeastern  section  of  the  plain 
one  of  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yang-tsze,  containing  400 
square  miles,  has  a  population  of  2,000,000  industrious  peasants 
and  fishermen,  an  average  of  5,000  per  square  mile.  Naturally 
such  districts  are  characterized  by  abundant  life  and  the  absence 
of  trees  and  waste  lands ;  though,  owing  to  the  inundations 
along  the  Pei-ho  and  Hwang-ho,  considerable  territory  is  an- 
nually flooded  and  hence  is  not  very  populous.     Compact  col- 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  259 

lections  of  one-story  houses  embowered  in  trees  form  the  cen- 
ters whence,  early  in  the  morning,  all  available  workers  swarm 
into  the  adjacent  fields  there  to  spend  the  day  in  the  unsur- 
passed industry  of  the  Chinese  farmer.  In  the  winter  the 
ground  appears  perfectly  barren,  since  all  vestiges  of  life,  even 
to  the  roots  of  wheat  and  stray  grass,  are  pulled  up  for  use  as 
fuel.  This  apparent  barrenness,  however,  is  compensated  for 
after  the  summer  rains  begin  in  July  by  the  colossal  mosaic 
made  up  of  vegetation  of  every  hue,  disposed  in  varying  pat- 
terns according  the  crop  and  size  of  the  holding. 

The  southeastern  corner  of  the  Empire  is  a  region  of  hills 
which  are  cultivated  sometimes  to  the  very  tops,  though  they 
are  often  wooded  on  their  summits.  The  most  populous  of  all 
the  provinces  is  here  found,  namely,  Fo-kien.  The  character- 
istic feature  of  this  portion  of  China  is  the  life  along  the  rivers 
and  manifold  canals.  Not  only  is  the  number  of  junks  and 
smaller  crafts  beyond  computation,  but  a  large  stationary  pop- 
ulation is  also  here  found  living  in  house-boats.  Industries  of 
various  sorts  are  being  carried  on  either  on  the  water  or  along 
the  banks.  This  is  the  section  of  the  Empire  where  mission- 
aries are  best  able  to  travel  from  point  to  point  at  every  season 
of  the  year,  though  in  the  northern  belt  of  provinces  their  fel- 
low-laborers in  the  dry  season  can  penetrate  to  any  given  town 
with  greater  ease  because  of  the  omnipresent  cart  or  wheel- 
barrow. 

The  western  tzvo-thirds  of  China  are  not  so  uniform.  Lofty 
mountains  are  a  barrier  to  ready  communication  between  the 
various  sections,  and  agriculture  is  confined  to  the  valleys  or 
favorable  mountain  slopes.  The  mountain  regions  in  some  sec- 
tions are  characterized  by  mining  life,  while  in  the  North  es- 
pecially are  seen  miles  upon  miles  in  the  aggregate  of  most 
magnificent  and  deadly  poppy  fields,  covered  at  the  proper  sea- 
son with  a  population  intent  on  gathering  the  juice  for  opium 
manufacture.  In  the  extreme  Northwest  the  region  is  decid- 
edly forbidding  and,  to  a  large  extent,  barren ;  while  the  south- 
ern section  of  the  country  is  marked  by  abundant  forests. 


26o  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

4.  The  soil  of  China,  especially  in  its  northeastern,  north- 
ern and  middle-western  sections,  is  most  fertile.  Much  of  the 
provinces  of  Shan-si  —  known  as  the  granary  of  the  Empire 
' — and  Shen-si  are  as  fertile  as  the  Great  Plain,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  loess  formation  here  abounds.  In  no  section  of 
the  world  is  this  deposit  so  remarkable  and  used  to  so  good 
advantage.  On  the  plains,  especially  where  the  rivers  overflow 
somewhat  during  the  rainy  season,  an  annual  deposit  of  loess 
gives  great  fertility  to  the  soil.  In  the  mountain  regions  this 
same  formation  furnishes  many  of  the  inhabitants  with  their 
cave-like  houses,  as  well  as  with  a  productive  soil. 

5.  Mineral  Resources.  —  China  is  distinguished  among  the 
nations  for  its  marvelous  mineral  resources.  While  the  pre- 
cious metals  and  almost  all  the  baser  ones  are  present,  the  Em- 
pire's greatest  wealth  lies  in  its  coal  and  iron  mines.  The  coal 
measures  are  estimated  by  some  to  equal  those  of  all  other  coal 
fields  of  the  world  put  together,  and  certainly  they  cover  re- 
gions at  least  five  times  as  great  as  the  coal  measures  of  Europe. 
Iron  ore,  which  in  many  cases  is  of  the  finest  quality,  is  also 
very  abundant.  These  two  sources  of  wealth  have  been  re- 
served for  the  time  when  modern  inventions  can  make  them 
most  valuable.  Naturally  they  are  the  objects  of  desire  on  the 
part  of  a  horde  of  Western  syndicates.  Next  to  the  province  of 
Shan-si  in  richness  of  mineral  resources  is  the  southern-central 
province  of  Kwei-chau.  Salt-wells  in  the  West  furnish  a  mar- 
velous exhibition  of  the  patience  and  ingenuity  of  the  Chinese, 
who  have  been  known  to  spend  as  much  as  forty  years  in 
drilling  a  single  artesian  salt-well.  Natural  gas  has  been  used 
for  generations  in  the  evaporation  of  this  brine. 

6.  Intercommunication.  —  Though  China  is  traditionally 
said  to  possess  20,000  roads,  few  travelers  have  the  hardihood 
to  assert  that  they  have  seen  any  outside  of  the  ports  that  de- 
serve the  name.  They  are  not  kept  up  with  any  degree  of  ef- 
ficiency and  are  most  wearisome  to  the  one  employing  them. 
Springless  carts,  creaking  wheelbarrows  with  an  immense 
wheel  projecting  through  the  center,  litters  swung  between 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  261 

two  fidgety  mules  and  horses  and  donkeys  are  the  chief  means 
of  conveyance  where  roads  are  largely  used.  In  the  South, 
and  among  the  mountains,  the  sedan  chair,  or  a  rude  contri- 
vance, a  mountain  chair,  is  used  along  the  narrow  foot-paths 
which  do  not  deserve  the  name  of  road,  even  according  to  the 
most  charitable  construction  of  the  term. 

The  water-ways  of  China  are  her  greatest  dependence.  On 
the  great  highway  of  the  Empire,  the  Yang-tsze,  known  as 
her  girdle,  —  steamers  abound.  Ocean  vessels  of  over  1,000  tons 
burden  reach  Han-kau,  680  miles  from  the  sea,  while  steamers  of 
600  tons  ascend  to  1-chang,  just  below  the  rapids.  The  rapids 
themselves  cannot  be  passed  by  boats  of  over  150  tons.  The 
affluents  of  this  mighty  stream,  especially  those  flowing  into  it 
from  the  north,  are  navigable,  as  are  many  of  the  other  rivers, 
especially  the  Hwang-ho,  the  Hsi-kiang  and  Pei-ho,  which  are 
the  other  principal  rivers.  When  it  is  recalled  that  the  Yang- 
tsze  alone  has  in  its  system  some  12,000  miles  of  navigable 
water-ways  which  penetrate  nearly  half  of  China  Proper,  it  can 
be  seen  that  "  no  country  can  compare  with  her  for  natural 
facilities  of  inland  navigation."  The  lakes  of  the  Empire  are 
unimportant,  though  picturesque,  and  the  seat  of  a  very  abun- 
dant life.  The  Chinese  have  utilized  commonly  disused  sources 
of  labor  to  make  these  waters  productive.  Children  are  very 
largely  employed  in  caring  for  vast  flocks  of  artificially 
hatched  ducklings,  and  even  roosters  are  sometimes  trained  to 
keep  this  brood  in  order  by  flapping  the  wings  and  crowing 
lustily.  A  common  sight  is  the  trained  cormorant  which  does 
most  effective  fishing  for  its  master. 

7.  The  Climate  of  China.  —  While  the  Chinese  themselves 
regard  the  three  provinces  composing  its  southern  and  tropical 
tier  as  the  unhealthful  section  of  the  Empire,  there  are  many 
regions  where  malaria  is  more  or  less  abundant ;  yet  it  may  be 
said  that  its  climate  is  much  cooler  than  that  of  any  great  sec- 
tion of  the  same  latitude.  One  drawback,  however,  is  the  high 
range  of  temperature.  Hot  summers  alternate  with  cold  win- 
ters, these  extremes  being  much  greater  in  the  North.     The 


262  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

northern  provinces  are  among  the  most  healthful  in  the  world, 
save  for  two  months  in  the  summer. 

II.  The  Chinese.  —  i.  Number  and  Distribution.  —  The 
fact  which  most  impresses  itself  upon  the  traveler  is  the  vast 
multitudes  in  China.  Estimates  vary  widely  as  to  the  total 
population,  the  range  being  from  227,000,000  to  upward  of 
400,000,000.  The  recent  authorities  incline  to  a  population  for 
China  Proper  of  from  350,000,000  to  386,000,000.  As  we  have 
seen,  that  of  the  Great  Plain  —  especially  in  Shan-tung  —  and 
of  the  province  of  Fo-kien,  is  most  dense ;  but  in  general  the 
seaboard  and  the  Yang-tsze  provinces  have  a  population  aver- 
aging some  400  per  square  mile.  The  northwestern  and  south- 
western provinces  are  least  populous ;  and  even  in  the  densely 
settled  province  of  Shan-tung  the  possibilities  of  production 
have  not  been  exhausted.  Mountain  regions  now  sparsely  set- 
tled are  destined,  with  the  exploitation  of  mines,  to  attract  a  far 
larger  number  of  people. 

2.  Their  Economic  Value.  —  Not  only  do  the  Chinese  out- 
number every  other  nationality,  but  they  also  surpass  their 
rivals  in  Asia  and  in  the  West  as  an  industrial  factor.  Most  of 
them  are  employed  in  agriculture.  Nowhere  is  it  held  in  great- 
er honor.  "  Nowhere,  perhaps,  is  more  care  shown  in  the  cul- 
tivation and  irrigation  of  the  ground,  the  selection  of  seeds  and 
of  the  best  varieties  of  cultivated  plants,  and  the  utilization  of 
manure,  above  all  domestic  manure.  Small  holdings  and  spade 
industry  are  the  general  rule,  and  large  numbers  of  plants  are 
first  sown  in  seedling  beds,  the  seedlings  carefully  selected  and 
transplanted.  The  soil  and  climate  combine  with  this  indus- 
try to  bring  forth  remarkable  abundance  in  many  parts  of  the 
country."  In  other  callings  the  Chinese  show  remarkable  en- 
durance and  great  powers  of  imitation ;  while  as  tradesmen  and 
bankers  they  are  not  surpassed  by  any  nationality  in  the  world. 
This  is  evidenced  by  their  record  in  countries  to  which  they 
have  emigrated  from  New  York  westward  around  the  globe 
as  far  as  the  shore  of  Africa.  A  most  competent  authority  who 
has  explored  China  more  extensively  than  any  one  else,  and 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  263 

studied  it  scientifically  and  economically,  Baron  Richthofen, 
maintains  "  that  in  the  struggle  for  existence  the  Chinese  have 
the  advantage  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  tropics  and  over  unciv- 
ilized races  generally,  of  restless  industry;  over  the  people  of 
Europe,  that  of  extreme  thrift;  and  apparently  over  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,  that  of  being  suited  to  any  climate." 
Naturally,  therefore,  he  looks  upon  the  possibility  of  their 
adopting  the  usable  elements  of  our  civilization  as  a  danger  to 
be  dreaded  by  the  rest  of  the  world  and  as  introducing  com- 
petition of  an  extremely  formidable  character.  In  this  fear  of 
the  so-called  "  Yellow  Peril,"  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
Australia  especially  share ;  in  the  tropics  they  are  more  readily 
welcomed. 

3.  Their  homogeneity  is  another  most  striking  characteristic 
of  this  race.  A  common  written  language  and  uniform  cus- 
toms and  religions,  together  with  their  isolation  for  ages  from 
surrounding  nations,  have  made  them  a  practical  unit.  A  pa- 
triarchal government  based  intellectually  upon  a  common  lit- 
erature, which  is  the  stepping-stone  to  all  official  employment, 
has  welded  them  together  with  iron  bands ;  so  that  to-day  they 
present  a  united  front  to  the  Powers  of  the  West. 

4.  The  Chinese  are  unexplainable  without  bearing  in  mind 
their  most  distinctive  characteristic,  namely  love  for  antiquity. 
While  the  early  traditions  of  the  country  reach  back  into  un- 
certain mists,  it  is  probable  that  most  of  the  history  dating  from 
forty  centuries  ago  —  nearly  a  thousand  years  before  the 
earliest  assured  event  in  Greek  history,  the  Dorian  invasion, 
and  a  century  before  Abraham  was  born  ■ —  has  a  strong  foun- 
dation in  actual  facts.  At  the  early  period  mentioned,  there 
appears  to  have  been  in  North  China,  in  the  province  of  Shan- 
si  and  Shen-si,  a  race  hailing  from  the  region  south  of  the  Cas- 
pian, with  institutions,  government  and  religion,  with  a  fairly 
well  developed  literature  and  a  knowledge  of  sciences  and  arts. 
So  prematurely  did  the  Chinese  possess  institutions  adapted  to 
the  highest  welfare  of  the  people  and  a  literature  calculated  to 
meet  their  needs,  that  their  development  was  arrested.     Hence 


264  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

one  finds  in  the  "  Erh  Ya,"  Ready  Guide,  —  claiming  to  be 
the  work  of  Duke  Chou,  iioo  B.C.,  though  largely  added  to 
as  late  as  a.d.  280.  —  descriptions  and  cuts  of  ancient  tools 
and  implements  which  are  substantially  the  same  as  those  in 
present  use.  This  book  itself  is  perhaps  the  oldest  philological 
work  extant  and  is  still  in  use  by  scholars.  The  memorizing 
of  these  ancient  Classics  and  their  necessity  as  a  preparation  for 
official  life,  together  with  the  comparative  crudeness  of  sur- 
rounding countries,  —  have  confirmed  the  Empire  in  thus 
clinging  to  the  past.  The  claim  made  by  Confucius  in  the 
"  Analects  "  is  the  head-line  which  might  be  truthfully  written 
over  every  page  of  Chinese  history,  "  A  transmitter  and  not  a 
maker,  believing  in  and  loving  the  ancients."  Conservatism, 
however,  has  been  of  some  advantage  to  the  nation ;  since  great 
essentials  have  after  careful  scrutiny  always  been  accepted  from 
without,  when  believed  to  be  of  advantage  to  the  people.  The 
past  decade  has  shown  that  the  Chinese  have  now  reached  a 
stage  where  slavery  to  the  past  is  willing  to  yield  to  the  free- 
dom of  a  brighter  future. 

5.  Chinese  Language  and  Literature.  —  Their  isolating 
language  has  done  as  much  as  any  single  factor  perhaps  to 
make  them  a  separate  people.  It  is  monosyllabic  in  character 
and  consequently  possesses  comparatively  few  distinct  vocables, 
the  number  heard  in  the  court  dialect  of  Peking  being  only 
421 ;  though  in  other  parts  of  the  Empire,  especially  in  the 
South,  this  number  is  considerably  increased.  This  has  made 
necessary  the  introduction  of  tones,  —  four  in  Peking,  and  as 
many  as  twelve  in  the  South.  These  tonal  distinctions  prac- 
tically increase  the  number  of  vocables ;  but  in  addition  synon- 
ymous words  are  grouped  into  dissyllables,  while  numera- 
tives,  enclytics  and  conventional  phraseology  combine  to  make 
one's  meaning  understood. 

The  written  language,  or  wen-li,  is  intelligible  to  all  who 
read  throughout  the  Empire  ;  though  the  pronunciation  of  these 
ideographs  varies  as  much  as  the  names  of  Arabic  numerals  in 
the  various  languages  of  the  world.     These  characters  in  the 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  265 

Imperial  Dictionary  of  Kang-hsi  number  44,zi48;  yet  the  first 
degree  graduate  does  not  need  to  write  more  than  6,000  of 
these,  while  12,000  would  be  an  abundance  for  even  the  most 
scholarly  use.  Having  no  alphabet,  the  Chinese  have  shown 
marvelous  skill  in  arranging  this  mass  of  arbitrary  characters 
so  as  to  be  readily  found  by  their  radicals. 

The  literature,  encased  in  these  hieroglyphs  like  flies  in  am- 
ber, is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Dating  back  for  up- 
ward of  4,000  years,  one  finds  here  the  wisdom  of  the  ages. 
The  early  records  as  made  current  through  Confucius  are 
strongly  moral  in  tone;  and  though  having  mainly  to  do  with 
government  and  popular  ceremonials,  they  have  entered  into 
the  warp  and  woof  of  the  entire  popular  life.  The  system 
of  civil  service  examinations  based  upon  this  literature  is  per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  in  the  world ;  albeit  the  material  is 
not  adapted  to  modern  conditions.  One  point  differentiating 
the  canonical  literature  from  that  of  all  other  peoples,  is  its 
extreme  purity  and  the  absence  of  mythological  elements.  It 
must  be  confessed,  however,  that  with  the  exception  of  coun- 
tries like  Japan  and  Korea,  where  the  Chinese  written  charac- 
ter is  largely  used  in  connection  with  vernaculars  differing  en- 
tirely from  the  written  tongue,  China  presents  greater  linguis- 
tic obstacles  to  the  missionary  than  any  other  land. 

III.  Chinese  Religions.  —  The  missionary  is  at  first  sur- 
prised to  see  in  China  no  marked  expression  of  the  religious 
life.  In  passing  westward  through  Japan  or  approaching  by 
way  of  India,  he  notes  evidences  of  religiosity  on  every  hand. 
In  China,  the  temples  are  oftentimes  dilapidated  and  but  little 
frequented,  and  indications  of  a  strong  hold  of  religion  on  the 
people  are  almost  wanting.  Another  fact  that  causes  surprise 
is  the  lack  of  religious  convictions  on  the  part  of  most  of  the 
Chinese.  Religions  are  like  so  many  remedies  to  be  used  in 
case  of  necessity,  each  one  for  a  particular  need.  The  orthodox 
faiths  of  the  people  are  three : 

I.  Confucianism  is  by  all  means  the  most  highly  respected 
and  is  the  only  one  confessed  to  by  the  literary  men.  It  is  based 


266  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

upon  the  Five  Books  and  Four  Classics.  Its  great  high  priest 
is  the  dead  Confucius,  known  as  K'ung-Fu-tzii,  the  master 
K'ung.  He  is  the  "  Throneless  King  "  of  nearly  twenty-five 
centuries  and  of  one-quarter  of  the  human  race.  No  other 
mere  man,  Buddha  not  excepted,  has  so  extensive  an  influence 
as  he,  nor  set  such  an  ineffaceable  stamp  upon  a  nation,  p  Un- 
fortunately Confucianism  is  atheistic  in  tendency  and  its  of- 
ficial expounder,  Chu  Fu-tzu,  has,  since  the  twelfth  century, 
made  this  highest  faith  extremely  materialistic,  despite  the 
fact  that  the  earliest  books  give  indications  of  a  Supreme  Be- 
ing who  was  possessed  of  personality  and  who  easily  outranked 
the  objects  of  nature,  which,  even  in  that  early  age,  seem  to 
have  been  simultaneously  worshiped. 

2.  Buddhism  is  an  exotic  germ  brought  into  the  Empire 
some  time  before  the  Christian  Era,  though  it  did  not  gain  a 
positive  foothold  until  about  the  time  of  St.  Paul's  death.*  It 
is  of  the  northern  type,  and  hence  is  far  more  acceptable  to 
practical  men  than  the  cold  and  cheerless  views  of  Southern 
Buddhism  with  no  higher  goal  than  Nirvana.  It  has  been  of 
benefit  to  China  in  that  it  has  helped  the  language  somewhat  in 
the  way  of  lexical  arrangement  and  also  because  of  its  contri- 
bution to  the  idea  of  a  future  life,  about  which  Confucius  had 
been  practically  silent.  Its  celibate  priesthood  is  sunken  in  ig- 
norance and  commonly  very  quiescent.  Nothing  like  the  preach- 
ing or  religious  instruction,  so  prevalent  in  Buddhist  temples  of 
Japan,  is  regularly  known  in  China.  A  few  Sanskrit  phrases, 
the  endless  repetition  of  O-mi-t'o  Fo,  and  the  post  mortem  ser- 
vices of  its  exacting  attendants,  are  the  main  features  of  Bud- 
dhist life ;  though  it  is  popularly  exhibited  in  the  "  release  of 
life,"  leading  often  to  the  capture  of  birds,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  set  free  for  a  price.  A  few  works  of  charity  are  other 
manifestations  of  this  faith. 

3.  Taoism,  standing  third  in  the  common  formula,  ante- 
ceded  Confucianism  in  the  person  of  its  founder,  Lao-tzii.  Its 
canon,  the  Tao-te  Ching,  can  be  read  in  a  little  more  than  half 
an  hour,  being  less  than  half  the  length  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel 


CHINA    AND   ITS    DEPENDENCIES  267 

and  thus  the  shortest  of  sacred  books.  There  is  scarcely  a 
point  in  this  faith  which  is  not  controverted,  —  the  meaning  of 
the  word  Tao,  for  instance,  being  most  variously  explained.  It 
contains  some  teachings  of  the  very  highest  character,  Lao-tzii 
being  called  China's  Pythagoras,  "  the  first  great  awakener  of 
thought."  Under  later  Taoist  leaders,  it  degenerated  until  it 
has  become  the  most  irrational  of  beliefs,  and  has  been  the  basis 
of  most  of  the  popular  superstitions.  This  sect  has,  however, 
given  to  China  one  of  the  most  widely  read  religious  books  of 
the  Empire,  the  Kan  Ying  P'ien,  or  "  Book  of  Rewards  and 
Punishments."  So  far  is  it  from  being  imaginative  or  fanciful 
that  it  is  little  else  than  a  list  of  virtues  and  vices  which  are 
to  be  cultivated  or  avoided.  It  is  thus  a  system  of  moral  book- 
keeping between  man  and  the  spirits,  the  spirit  of  the  hearth 
enshrined  in  the  kitchen  god  being  a  sort  of  detective  to  check 
up  the  facts. 

4.  The  zvorship  of  ancestors,  resting  upon  vague,  historical 
foundations,  is  the  leading  factor  in  China's  religious  life, 
which  cares  comparatively  little  for  the  ethics  of^Lao-tzu  and 
of  the  great  K'ung  Fu-tzu  and  his  Chinese  Plato,  Mencius,  or 
Meng-tzii.  The  basis  of  Chinese  ancestral  worship  is  found 
in  the  belief  that  a  man  possesses  three  souls,  which  after  death 
reside  in  the  ancestral  tablet,  in  the  tomb  and  in  Hades  respec- 
tively. These  souls  have  the  same  needs  after  death  as  before, 
the  satisfaction  of  which  rests  with  survivors,  especially  the 
eldest  son  of  the  deceased.  To  meet  these  needs,  clothing, 
household  articles,  money,  etc.,  made  of  paper,  must  be  trans- 
mitted to  the  spirit-world  through  fire,  thus  becoming  invis- 
ible and  so  suited  to  invisible  spirits,  while  food  can  be  im- 
mediately partaken  in  its  essence  by  the  spirits.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  lower  world  is  the  counterpart  of  that  in  China,  and 
officials  of  Hades  are  open  to  bribery  and  look  upon  the  out- 
ward appearance,  just  as  in  earthly  ya-mens.  This  not  only 
calls  for  much  paper  money,  but  also  for  the  assistance  of  a  cor- 
rupt horde  of  priests  who  mercilessly  fleece  survivors.  The 
system  presupposes  that  disembodied  spirits  are  more  power- 


268  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

ful  than  in  life,  and  if  their  wants  are  not  fully  supplied,  they 
can,  and  probably  will,  bring  varied  calamities  upon  their  pos- 
terity. Fear  thus  becomes  the  all-powerful  spur  to  filial  piety 
toward  dead  ancestors. 

5.  Chinese  Geomancy.  —  Space  does  not  permit  a  full  state- 
ment concerning  other  forms  of  nature  worship.  Fetishes  and 
totems  are  practically  if  not  theoretically  powerful,  while  animal 
worship  is  quite  common,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  hedge- 
hog, fox  and  snakes.  A  far  more  important  place,  however,  in 
the  popular  esteem  is  occupied  by  the  great  mass  of  supersti- 
tions known  as  feng-shui,  literally  wind  and  water.  While  it 
may  owe  most  to  the  Taoists  for  its  development,  it  is  the  pro- 
duct of  superstition-mongers  of  all  the  sects.  Though  founded 
on  one  of  the  most  ancient  classics,  the  Yi  Ching,  it  became  sys- 
tematized only  in  the  twelfth  century;  yet  in  seven  hundred 
years  it  has  become  "  one  of  the  most  gigantic  systems  of  de- 
lusion that  ever  gained  prevalence  among  men." 

Evidences  of  the  power  of  this  system  are  seen  almost  every- 
where. Graves  with  their  armchair  configuration  in  the  South, 
crooked  streets,  blank  walls  and  screens  to  prevent  spirits  from 
gaining  impetus  through  rectilinear  motion,  pagodas  and  tem- 
ples erected  to  improve  feng-shui,  the  location  of  Peking  and 
of  the  mausolea  of  grandees  and  emperors,  theories  about  the 
height  of  new  buildings  near  older  ones,  hostility  to  two-storied 
houses  of  foreigners  and  spires  of  Christian  churches,  and  the 
prevalent  dread  of  telegraphs,  railroads  and  mines,  so  fear- 
fully inimical  to  good  luck  —  these  are  a  few  samples  of  many. 
In  a  word  the  universal  fear  of  bad  feng-shui  is  expressed  in 
their  proverb,  "  A  real  man  would  rather  die  than  to  have  his 
eyebrows  inverted,"  i.  e.,  lose  his  luck.  And  the  key  to  this 
most  enthralling  system  of  superstition  is  held  in  the  itching 
palm  of  the  crafty  geomancer,  usually  of  Buddhistic  or  Taoist 
faith. 

,  IV.  China's  Sanguinary  Awakening.  —  This  is  not  the 
place  to  rehearse  the  various  steps  by  which,  from  the  day  when 
Marco  Polo's  fascinating  account  of  Cathay  first  astonished 


CHINA   AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  269 

Europe,  the  Occident  has  attempted  to  enter  the  confines  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom.  The  Opium  War  with  Great  Britain  in 
1841-42  was  the  first  great  stroke  of  modern  China's  destiny, 
and  other  wars  have  opened  still  wider  her  brazen  gates.  The 
recent  encounter  with  Japan  and  the  consequent  entanglements 
with  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  together  with  the  seizure  by 
the  Germans  of  Kiao-chou  in  eastern  Shan-tung,  were  the  out- 
standing events  which  hastened  the  catastrophe  of  1900.  A 
more  careful  view  of  the  situation,  however,  will  reveal  other 
important  elements  in  the  recent  awakening. 

1.  As  affecting  the  Chinese  people  the  foremost  of  these 
factors  is  industrial  in  character.  In  a  land  of  dense  popula- 
tions, where  competition  is  intense  and  capital  almost  entirely 
wanting,  the  extensive  importation  of  foreign  goods  has  greatly 
crippled  house  industries.  This  is  especially  true  where  for- 
eign cottons  have  been  largely  sold.  Moreover,  the  introduc- 
tion of  steamers  and  railroads  and  of  cotton  and  silk  mills,  thus 
far  only  in  the  initial  stage,  has  greatly  incensed  multitudes  of 
the  Chinese  who  see  employment  taken  away  from  them  with- 
out adequate  compensation  in  the  way  of  other  substituted  oc- 
cupations. Thus  the  tearing  up  of  the  railroad  in  the  summer 
of  1900  was  largely  instigated  by  boatmen  and  carters  of  Tung- 
chau,  who  had  been  deprived  of  the  means  of  livelihood  through 
the  railroad  from  Tientsin  to  Peking.  While  these  inventions 
might  ultimately  prove  of  great  benefit  to  the  people  at  large, 
their  rapid  introduction  would  lead  to  a  far  greater  disturbance 
of  normal  conditions  than  was  experienced  in  England  when 
machinery  first  threatened  the  ordinary  artisan. 

2.  The  encroachment  of  foreign  Powers  above  alluded  to 
had  the  same  effect  upon  the  Government  that  manufactured 
goods  and  improved  means  of  communication  exerted  upon  the 
common  people.  Not  only  did  the  rulers  of  the  Empire  see 
strategic  points  like  Port  Arthur  and  Wei-hai-wei  occupied  by 
leading  nations  of  the  West,  but  Germany  had  also  invaded  her 
Holy  Land,  the  province  of  Confucius  and  Mencius;  Great 
Britain  had  extended  her  Hongkong  possessions  on  the  adja- 


270  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

cent  mainland ;  France,  after  gaining  a  foothold,  was  clamoring 
for  a  southern  sphere  of  influence ;  Japan  had  practically  prom- 
ised to  her  the  first  right  to  China's  most  populous  province,  Fo- 
kien;  and  even  feeble  Italy  put  in  a  claim  for  San-men  Bay. 
The  open-door  scheme  of  America  and  Great  Britain,  which 
brought  the  manufactures  of  the  West  into  the  populous  prov- 
inces bordering  on  the  Yang-tsze,  was  another  menace.  The 
natural  inference  of  the  Emperor  and  his  advisers  was  that 
China  was  rapidly  being  seized ;  for,  aside  from  the  sections 
mentioned,  the  Powers  had  by  a  more  or  less  tacit  understand- 
ing secured  a  mortgage  upon  all  the  important  portions  of  the 
Empire.  Hence  they  must  face  the  question  of  speedy  im- 
potence, or  else  of  actual  division  of  the  country  into  spheres  of 
influence. 

Dissatisfaction  with  foreign  governments  was  increased  by 
the  emergence  of  a  large  number  of  Western  syndicates  seek- 
ing rights  of  every  description,  which  would  deprive  China  of 
her  most  profitable  possessions.  Many  of  these,  backed  by 
their  governments,  had  secured  concessions  which,  when  more 
fully  interpreted,  involved  China  in  serious  international  en- 
tanglements. Each  nation  seemed  determined  to  outdo  other 
Powers  in  the  number  of  concessions  secured ;  so  that  Peking 
and  Tientsin  were  scenes  of  most  unrighteous  contests  for 
rights  that  were  palpable  and  egregious  wrongs. 

3.  Coincident  with  the  condition  just  alluded  to  was  the  rise 
of  a  coterie  of  reformers.  A  few  keen  men,  most  of  them  com- 
paratively young,  saw  the  inevitable,  and  realized  that  contin- 
ued national  existence  demanded  marked  changes.  Those 
which  occasioned  the  greatest  opposition  had  to  do  with  the 
examination  system  which  affected  all  literary  men  of  the  Em- 
pire. If  the  stilted  and  useless  wen-chang,  or  literary  essay, 
to  properly  write  which  demanded  the  strenuous  study  of  years, 
was  to  be  superseded  by  a  knowledge  of  Western  sciences  and 
inventions.  Christian  converts,  who  practically  alone  possessed 
this  knowledge,  would,  with  their  few  years  of  study,  carry 
off  the  prizes  which  multitudes  of  scholars  of  the  old  school 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  2/1 

had  long  striven  for.  This  meant  poverty  to  vast  multitudes; 
since  the  popular  proverb  expresses  the  great  aim  of  Con- 
fucian scholarship,  namely,  "  Study  books  to  become  an  offi- 
cial." Being  an  official  was  synonymous  with  richly  lining 
one's  nest  with  gains,  for  the  most  part  ill-gotten.  Moreover, 
the  reformers  advocated  changes  in  government  which  would 
reduce  the  number  of  offices  for  which  so  many  were  striving. 
Industrial  complications,  anticipated  because  of  the  proposed 
introduction  of  many  modern  methods  and  inventions,  had  an 
undoubted  influence  in  stirring  up  the  people  against  the  new 
regime.  The  arch-reformer,  K'ang  Yii-wei,  found  in  the  Em- 
peror, however,  a  willing  hearer.  His  Imperial  Majesty  read 
a  large  number  of  books  prepared  by  missionaries  and  other 
Occidentals,  and  even  began  the  study  of  English.  At  this 
juncture  the  Empress  Dowager  appeared  upon  the  scene  and 
by  the  coup  d'etat  of  1898  shattered  the  glass  castles  which  the 
Emperor  and  the  reformers  had  so  laboriously  erected.  The 
Emperor's  revolutionary  edicts  were  mostly  rescinded  and  re- 
action was  the  order  of  the  day. 

4.  Religion  was  made  at  once  the  scapegoat  and  means  of 
upbuilding  the  Dowager's  regime.  According  to  existing  trea- 
ties, the  only  foreigners  who  had  a  right  to  reside  outside  the 
ports  and  the  capital  were  the  missionaries.  In  the  ports  an 
uprising  against  foreigners  was  practically  impossible,  owing 
to  the  ever-present  gun-boat  or  soldier.  In  the  remote  regions 
of  the  Empire  where  the  missionaries  were  scattered,  there  was 
no  such  powerful  arm  ready  to  defend,  and  hence  in  those 
places  friction  often  led  to  serious  consequences.  Law-suits 
or  political  intervention  frequently  resulted  in  the  loss  of  of- 
ficial position  to  influential  mandarins.  It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  the  killing  of  two  Catholic  missionaries  in  Shan- 
tung was  the  occasion  of  the  German  occupation  of  part  of  that 
province.  At  the  door  of  Christianity  was  also  laid  the  charge 
of  inciting  the  Emperor  and  his  advisers  to  reform ;  since  most 
of  the  books  influencing  him  were  either  the  products  of  mis- 
sionaries or  of  mission  presses. 


272  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

On  the  other  hand,  the  religions  of  the  Empire  played  an 
important  part  in  the  initial  impulse  of  the  revolution.  A  sud- 
den recrudescence  of  religious  fervor  was  simulated  and  the 
cry,  "  The  gods  in  danger !  "  aided  in  inciting  the  populace,  es- 
pecially when  ancestral  worship,  which  had  been  opposed  by 
both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  became  the  central  point  of  em- 
phasis. Many  of  the  Boxer  posters  placed  in  the  forefront  the 
religious  dangers  with  which  the  Empire  was  threatened.  Ac- 
tual conflict  between  these  hordes  and  Catholic  Christians  only 
deepened  the  animosity  felt  toward  this  form  of  Christianity, 
which  had  previously  been  often  engaged  in  law-suits  with 
disastrous  results  to  officials.  For  these  reasons,  and  also  be- 
cause of  the  eternal  enmity  between  light  and  darkness,  books 
had  been  written  and  pictures  used  with  the  intent  of  inflam- 
ing the  people  against  the  only  foreigners  with  whom  most 
were  acquainted,  the  missionaries.  This  had  been  true,  more  or 
less,  throughout  the  whole  decade,  but  increased  in  intensity 
in  1899  and  1900. 

5.  The  Boxer  outbreak  was  a  natural  sequence  of  the  condi- 
tions and  events  just  narrated.  Starting  as  the  work  of  secret 
sects,  which  have  for  centuries  been  a  source  of  terror  to  the 
Empire,  bands  of  men  in  the  province  of  Shan-tung  began 
to  practice  a  rude  sort  of  gymnastics,  combined  with  an  equally 
crude  form  of  hypnotism,  supposed  to  render  the  Boxers  in- 
vulnerable. Some  of  them  having  practiced  in  Peking  before 
high  officials,  these  men  became  convinced,  as  did  the  Empress 
Dowager,  of  their  invulnerability  and  consequent  value  in  this 
time  of  crisis.  Apparently  believing  that  with  such  allies  she 
could  drive  out  the  hated  foreigner,  a  secret  edict  was  issued, 
ending  with  this  statement :  "  Let  no  one  think  of  making 
peace,  but  let  each  strive  to  preserve  from  destruction  or  spolia- 
tion his  ancestral  home  and  graves  from  the  ruthless  hands 
of  the  invader."  The  die  had  been  cast,  and  all  the  world 
knows  the  series  of  events  which  make  the  year  1900  the  annus 
mirabilis  in  a  century  full  of  marvelous  happenings.  Every 
one  remembers  the  details  of  the  siege  in  Peking  of  represen- 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  273 

tatives  of  the  great  Powers  of  the  Occident,  and  the  virulent 
hatred  which  put  to  death  missionaries  and  Christians  of  the 
Protestant  and  GathoHc  faiths,  not  so  much  because  they  were 
Christians,  as  for  the  reason  that  they  represented  the  hated 
foreigner.  In  a  brief  summer  the  work  of  300  years  of  Catho- 
lic missions  and  of  almost  a  century  of  Protestant  effort  was 
either  destroyed  or  most  seriously  crippled.  As  to  Western 
civilization,  the  beginning  of  the  new  century  presents  problems 
of  great  complexity,  with  the  probability  that  civilization  and 
its  handmaid,  Christianity,  will  solve  them,  and  soon  make 
more  rapid  strides  than  ever  before. 

V.  Manchuria. —  This  dependency,  equaling  in  extent  the 
New  England  and  Middle  States,  plus  the  two  Virginias,  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Michigan  is  the  home  of  the  Manchus,  China's 
present  Imperial  rulers.  Russia's  essential  occupation  of  the 
country,  despite  the  opposition  of  China,  has  brought  Man- 
churia prominently  before  the  public. 

I.  Of  the  country  itself,  which,  as  its  Chinese  name  indicates, 
consists  of  "Three  Eastern  Provinces,"  Captain  Younghus- 
band  thus  writes:  "The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  extraordinary; 
the  plain  country  is  richly  cultivated  and  dotted  over  with 
flourishing  villages  and  thriving  market  towns,  and  the  hills 
are  covered  with  magnificent  forests  of  oak  and  elm.  The 
mineral  resources  are  undeveloped,  but  coal  and  iron,  gold 
and  silver,  are  known  to  be  procurable.  The  climate  is  healthy 
and  invigorating,  but  very  cold  in  winter,  when  the  tempera- 
ture varies  from  10°  F.  below  zero  in  the  South  to  40°  or  more 
below  zero  in  the  North."  Native  poets  regard  it  as  "the  fair- 
est land  in  the  world,  with  its  woodlands,  sunny  glades,  and 
sparkling  streams,  all  bathed  in  the  bright  atmosphere  of 
heaven."  Until  the  trouble  with  Russia,  in  1900,  the  native 
Manchus  had  been  constantly  drawn  off  to  reenforce  Manchu 
garrisons,  in  China,  while  an  ever-increasing  tide  of  Chinese 
had  been  pouring  in.  This  immigration  has  received  a  tempo- 
rary check,  and,  with  brigandage  so  common  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  Manchuria,  further  development  is  now  arrested. 


2^4  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

2,  Its  people  are  estimated  as  numbering  from  7,500,000 
to  23,000,000.  These  are  almost  all  Chinese,  though  the  ruling 
spirits  are  the  comparatively  small  Manchu  element.  Their 
national  customs  and  even  their  alphabet  and  language  are 
passing  rapidly  away  before  the  conquering  Chinese,  who  were 
originally  banished  from  Manchuria  as  convicts  or  noble  exiles. 
Dr.  Williams  regarded  the  Manchus  as  the  most  improvable 
race  in  Central  Asia,  if  not  on  the  continent.  The  people  as 
a  whole  are  better  off  materially  —  receive  higher  wages  and 
are  better  clothed  and  fed  —  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
Chinese  Empire.  Though  moral  and  spiritual  culture  —  pre- 
vailing religions  are  those  of  China  —  have  not  kept  pace  with 
material  advancement,  the  Pentecosts  of  the  past  decade,  wit- 
nessed in  the  southern  half  of  the  country,  show  that  Man- 
churia is  likely  to  be  one  of  the  most  inviting  fields  for  Chris- 
tian missions. 

VI.  Mongolia. —  i.  The  Land  of  "the  Brave." — This  ex- 
tensive upland  country,  stretching  westward  from  Manchuria, 
is  more  than  thrice  as  extensive  as  its  eastern  neighbor,  and 
fully  two-thirds  as  large  as  China  Proper.  The  southern  por- 
tion of  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  work  of  the  early  represen- 
tatives of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  who  labored  in  the 
North,  has  been  practically  the  only  field  occupied  by  Protest- 
ant missionaries.  This  section,  lying  south  and  southeast  of  the 
desert  regions,  is  an  elevated  plateau  of  rolling  prairie,  sparsely 
covered  with  grass,  upon  which  flocks  and  herds  pasture. 
Nomad  life  gives  character  to  the  scenery.  Scattered  here 
and  there  over  the  prairie  are  clusters  of  circular  felt  tents, 
surrounded  with  the  inevitable  stacks  of  argol  —  dried  dung,, 
used  as  fuel  —  and  with  swarms  of  children  and  wolfish  Mon- 
gol dogs.  Prayer  flags  fluttering  over  the  encampment,  horse- 
men watching  their  widely  scattered  herds  of  cattle  and  camels, 
lazy  lamas  on  pilgrimage,  possibly  a  group  of  mounted  soldiers 
of  mediaeval  appearance  pricking  over  the  plain,  and,  above 
all,  a  sky  of  fleckless  azure,  vocal  with  sky-larks  and  overarch- 
ing a  land  blue  with  forget-me-nots,  are  features  in  an  August 


CHINA   AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  275 

landscape.  The  land  of  the  agricultural  Mongol  on  the  Chinese 
border  differs  in  no  essential  respect  from  North  China. 

2.  While  the  Mongols  do  not  now  suggest  their  name,  sig- 
nifying "  brave  "  or  *'  courageous,"  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
they  are  of  the  same  Tatar  race  that  sent  the  armies  of  the 
Khans,  Genghis  and  Kublai,  to  the  very  heart  of  Europe  dur- 
ing the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Professor  Douglas 
says  of  Kublai  Khan,  an  Emperor  of  the  Mongol  dynasty : 
"Never  in  the  history  of  China  was  the  nation  more  illustrious, 
nor  its  power  more  widely  felt,  than  under  his  sovereignty. 
At  this  time  his  authority  was  acknowledged  from  the  Frozen 
Sea  almost  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  With  the  exception  of 
Hindustan,  Arabia  and  the  westernmost  parts  of  Asia,  all  the 
Mongol  princes,  as  far  as  the  Dnieper  declared  themselves  his 
vassals,  and  brought  regularly  their  tribute."  In  addition  to 
their  supreme  characteristic  of  religiosity,  the  Mongols  are  hos- 
pitable, addicted  to  cattle  stealing  and  strong  drink,  good- 
hearted,  lacking  in  foresight,  and  abounding  in  laziness  and 
dirt. 

VII.  Tibet  and  Hsin-chiang.  —  These  two  dependencies, 
the  former  occupying  "the  roof  of  the  world,"  and  the  latter 
including  in  a  nineteenth  province  all  the  rest  of  Chinese  Cen- 
tral Asia  north  of  Tibet,  are  described  in  Chapter  XIX,  since 
only  a  bare  beginning  has  been  made  in  their  evangelization. 


PART   II.  — MISSIONARY 

I.  The  Missionary  Force  and  Its  Distribution.  —  A 
serious  difficulty  is  encountered  in  attempting  to  report  the 
statistics  of  Chinese  missions.  At  the  time  when  data  had  to 
be  applied  for  in  order  to  enter  them  in  Volume  II  of  the  pres- 
ent work,  very  few  of  the  missionaries  north  of  the  Yang-tsze 
River  had  returned  to  the  field.  To  give  only  those  figures 
that  could  be  ascertained  on  January  i,  1901,  would,  accord- 
ingly, be  to  wholly  misrepresent  the  missionary  situation  in  that 


2^6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Empire.  On  consultation  with  board  secretaries  and  Chinese 
missionaries,  it  was  decided  that,  as  most  of  the  stations  for- 
merly occupied  will  doubtless  be  soon  reopened  and  as  com- 
paratively few  of  the  missionaries  were  massacred  during  the 
Boxer  uprising,  the  fairest  approximation  to  truth  could  be 
gained  through  the  statistics  which  have  been  furnished  by  the 
societies  of  the  situation  on  January  i,  1900.  The  main  error 
arising  from  this  course  is  found  in  the  number  of  Christians, 
many  thousands  of  whom  were  slain  later  in  the  year  1900,  and 
in  the  details  of  station  force  and  activities. 

1.  According  to  the  figures  given  in  Volume  II  of  the  present 
work,  the  total  number  of  foreign  missionaries  laboring  in 
China  at  the  beginning  of  1900  was  2,785,  Of  these  610  were 
ordained,  578  were  unordained  men,  772  were  missionaries' 
wives,  and  there  were  825  other  missionary  women.  Of  the 
above  number,  162  were  male  physicians  and  79  women  phy- 
sicians. The  number  of  native  workers  of  both  sexes  was 
6,388,  and  another  important  element  of  the  force  was  a  body 
of  112,808  native  Christians.  The  leading  German  missionary 
statisticians.  Professor  Warneck  and  Dr.  Grundmann,  in  works 
published  in  1901,  do  not  make  use  of  as  recent  statistics,  nor 
do  they  report  as  large  a  list  of  societies. 

2.  The  number  of  missionary  organizations  laboring  in  the 
Empire  and  reported  in  Volume  II  is  sixty-seven.  This  includes 
Bible  societies  and  other  organizations  having  foreign  workers 
on  the  field,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mission  to  Lepers  in 
India  and  the  East,  which  furnishes  a  large  plant,  but  depends 
upon  other  societies  for  its  workers.  While  the  statistics  of 
Volume  II  do  not  indicate  the  provincial  distribution  of  native 
communicants,  a  sufficiently  accurate  statement  is  found  in  the 
authorized  translation  of  Professor  Warneck's  "Abriss  einer 
Geschichte  der  protestantischen  Missionen,"  1901.  According 
to  this  translation,  the  province  of  Fo-kien  contained  the  larg- 
est number  of  Christians,  25,409,  after  deducting  those  in  For- 
mosa. Kwang-tung  came  next,  with  15,000  Christians;  Shan- 
tung, 12,500  Christians;  Manchuria,  9,900;  Che-kiang,  9,250; 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  277 

Chi-H,  8,000;  Hu-pei,  4,650;  and  Kiang-su,  4,570.  Here  Dr. 
Warneck  gives  the  round  numbers  of  Hartmann's  statistics, 
which  appeared  in  the  May,  1900,  issue  of  the  "Allgemeine 
Missions-Zeitschrift."  Because  of  an  error  in  footing,  Hart- 
mann's 4,576  should  be  4,306.  Other  provinces  had  less  than 
2,000  Christians  each,  according  to  the  Hartmann  tables,  fol- 
lowed by  Dr.  Warneck.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  seaboard 
provinces  of  the  Empire  contained  by  far  the  largest  number 
of  Christians,  though  missionaries  were  widely  distributed  in 
all  of  the  eighteen  provinces. 

3.  It  is  difficult  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  various  boards ; 
for  the  educational  and  spiritual  qualifications  of  the  mis- 
sionary forces  are  a  variable  quality.  Moreover,  men  like  the 
late  Dr.  Faber,  of  the  Allgemeiner  evangelisch-protestantischer 
Missionsverein,  Dr.  Young  J.  Allen,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Board,  South,  and  Timothy  Richard,  representing  the  English 
Baptists  and  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and 
General  Knowledge  among  the  Chinese,  have  had  a  wider  in- 
fluence upon  the  Empire  during  the  past  few  years  than  scores 
of  missionaries  less  strategically  situated  and  employed.  If 
communicants  are  taken  as  the  criterion,  this,  too,  is  exceedingly 
misleading;  as  some  societies,  like  the  Northern  Methodists  of 
the  United  States,  whose  number  of  communicants  is  the  larg- 
est, include  under  this  head  those  who  are  baptized,  but  not 
fully  received.  It  may  be  said  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy 
that  the  leading  boards  in  the  several  provinces  are  as  follows : 
In  Manchuria,  or  Sheng-king,  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland,  the  Irish  Presbyterians  and  the  Danish  Missionary 
Society;  in  Chi-li,  the  American  Board,  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Board,  North,  the  London  Missionary  Society  and  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel ;  in  Shan-titng,  the  Pres- 
byterian Board,  North,  the  English  Baptists  and  the  China  In- 
land ]\Iission;  in  Kiang-su,  the  Presbyterian  Board,  South,  the 
China  Inland  Mission,  the  Presbyterians,  North,  and  American 
Methodists,  South;  in  Che-kiang,  the  China  Inland  Mission, 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  American  Baptist  Mission- 


2y%  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

ary  Union  and  the  Presbyterian  Board,  South ;  in  Fo-kien,  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  the  Methodist  Board,  North,  the 
EngHsh  Presbyterians  and  the  American  Board ;  in  Kzvang- 
timg,  the  Basel  Missionary  Society,  the  Presbyterians,  North, 
the  Enghsh  Presbyterians,  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  the  Rhenish  and  Berhn  Missionary  Societies  and  the 
Church  Missionary  Society ;  in  Kzvang-si,  the  Christian  and 
Missionary  AlHance,  the  EngHsh  Wesleyans,  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  in 
Yun-nan,  the  China  Inland  Mission ;  in  Ssc-chwan,  the  China 
Inland  Mission,  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union,  the  Friends'  Missionary  Society 
and  the  Canadian  Methodists ;  in  Kan-su,  the  China  Inland 
Mission ;  in  Shen-si,  the  China  Inland  Mission  and  the  English 
Baptists;  in  Shan-si,  the  China  Inland  Mission,  the  English 
Baptists  and  the  American  Board ;  in  Mongolia,  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  the  Scandinavian  Mission  Alliance  of 
North  America,  the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance ;  in  Ho- 
nan,  the  China  Inland  Mission  and  the  Canadian  Presby- 
terians ;  in  N gan-hwci,  the  China  Inland  Mission,  the  Foreign 
Christian  Missionary  Society  and  the  American  Episcopalians ; 
in  Hii-pei,  the  London  Missionary  Society,  the  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society,  the  Swedish  Missionary  Society,  the  American 
Episcopalians  and  the  China  Inland  Mission;  in  Kiang-si,  the 
China  Inland  Mission  and  the  Methodist  Board,  North;  in 
Hu-nan,  the  London  Missionary  Society,  the  China  Inland  Mis- 
sion, the  Presbyterian  Board,  North,  the  American  Episco- 
palians and  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians ;  and  in  Kwei-chau, 
the  China  Inland  Mission.  It  should  be  added  that  the  Bible 
societies,  especially  the  American,  the  British  and  Foreign, 
and  the  National  of  Scotland,  together  with  the  Society  for 
the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  General  Knowledge  among  the 
Chinese  and  the  various  tract  societies,  are  exceedingly  in- 
fluential throughout^  the  entire  Empire,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  their  agents  are  few  and  located  only  in  leading 
centers. 


CHINA   AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  279 

11.  Forms  of  Work  Most  Useful  in  1900.  —  China  is  so 
large  and  typical  a  mission  field  that  a  somewhat  full  state- 
ment of  these  will  be  made,  though  with  the  understanding  that 
since  the  recent  uprising  most  of  these  forms  of  activity  have 
been  intermitted,  and  that  in  the  future  other  elements  will  be 
more  largely  emphasized,  perhaps,  than  the  methods  here 
named.  The  present  tense  is  employed,  however,  for  the  reason 
that,  while  largely  given  up  at  the  time  of  writing,  the  work 
will  always  need  to  make  these  forms  of  effort  fundamental 
in  the  great  majority  of  stations  that  for  some  time  to  come 
will  be  unaffected  by  China's  new  life. 

1.  Efforts  for  China's  Physical  Alleviation.  — Medicine  has 
been  the  wedge  used  to  open  the  doors  of  hundreds  of  un- 
friendly homes.  From  the  first  moment  of  his  arrival,  the 
physician  is  most  useful,  and  though  the  natives  may  not  real- 
ize the  priceless  worth  of  the  gospel  message,  release  from 
pain  and  from  many  diseases  which  Chinese  practitioners  can- 
not heal,  is  appreciated  most  gratefully.  While  dispensaries 
are  far  more  common  than  hospitals,  the  latter  are  apt  to  yield 
more  encouraging  spiritual  results.  Leisure  to  learn  through 
oral  instruction  the  gist  of  the  gospel  is  there  afforded,  and 
hundreds  have  also  embraced  the  opportunity  to  learn  to  read, 
through  the  medium  of  Christian  tracts,  which  are  carried  later 
to  their  homes  as  a  silent  leaven. 

2.  Educational  Work.  —  ( i )  Day-schools,  usually  for  pupils 
of  one  sex  —  though  sometimes  mixed  schools  are  opened  for 
very  young  children  —  are  the  commonest  sort  of  educational 
institutions.  Boys  and  girls,  mainly  from  poor  Christian  fam- 
ilies whose  parents  could  not  afford  to  have  them  go  to  an  or- 
dinary school,  make  very  rapid  progress  in  their  studies,  thanks 
to  a  rational  system  of  instruction  and  to  heredity.  Reading, 
writing  and  the  rudiments  of  Western  learning  are  imparted, 
but  the  staple  of  instruction  is  the  Bible.  Hundreds  of  pupils 
in  day-schools  memorize  the  gospels,  and  many  the  entire  New 
Testament.  Better  still,  they  are  taught  to  look  upon  it  as  a 
divine  seed,  and  in  many  a  child's  heart  it  has  germinated  and 


28o  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

brought  forth  fruit  in  heathen  court-yards.  In  some  of  these 
schools  the  pupils  need  to  be  induced  to  come  by  the  gift  of  a 
few  cash,  picture-cards,  etc. ;  but  in  older  communities  Chris- 
tians so  much  appreciate  them,  that  their  partial  or  entire  sup- 
port is  often  obtained.  Native  teachers,  many  of  them  trained 
in  mission  schools  of  a  higher  grade,  are  usually  in  charge, 
though  foreign  supervision  is  always  helpful. 

(2)  Boarding-schools  are  attended  by  a  comparatively  few 
picked  pupils ;  but  the  close  contact  with  the  missionaries  and 
with  the  community  of  Christians  isolated  from  the  heathen 
mass  has  been  an  inestimable  benefit  to  the  leaders  of  the 
Church,  who  would  otherwise  have  had  no  definite  conception 
of  what  Christianity  can  effect  in  associated  life.  This  ad- 
vantage more  than  offsets  the  objection  that  a  hot-house  atmos- 
phere, which  unfits  them  for  sterner  experiences  of  service,  is 
the  penalty  of  such  schools.  These  institutions  are  especially 
valuable  for  the  young  women,  the  future  wives  and  mothers 
of  the  Christian  community,  who  there  learn  lessons  in  home- 
making  that  will  prove  invaluable.  The  studies  pursued  in  such 
schools  are  disappointingly  limited  in  range  in  the  opinion 
of  the  newly  arrived  foreigner ;  yet  in  many  cases  they  are  such 
as  are  best  adapted  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  Chinese. 
Ancient  and  modern  languages  —  except  English  along  the 
coast  and  in  the  ports  —  are  not  worth  learning,  as  dense  ig- 
norance on  more  vital  topics  exists,  and  the  study  of  their  own 
Classics  is  indispensable  as  an  element  of  Chinese  culture,  and 
as  a  mental  discipline  is  almost  as  valuable  as  Greek  and  Latin 
to  the  student  of  the  West. 

(3)  Only  a  very  few  genuine  colleges  exist.  Yet  there 
is  pressing  need  of  a  body  of  well-trained  natives  who  can 
enter  the  vast  fields  opening  to  the  civil  engineer,  the  mining 
expert,  the  electrician  and  the  topographical  engineer.  Astron- 
omy and  mathematics,  which  have  previously  been  desired, 
must  also  be  taught.  It  can  be  said  with  perfect  truth  that 
thus  far  the  missionaries  have  been  China's  best,  and  almost 
only,  instructors,  and  in  the  higher  institutions  students  are 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  281 

being  trained  who  receive  a  moral  education  second  to  that 
imparted  in  no  Western  college,  and  a  mental  development 
that  compares  favorably  with  that  of  our  students. 

(4)  Educatio>i  for  Christian  service  is  an  endeavor  that  even 
those  societies  approve  of  which  do  not  encourage  a  general 
educational  work.  Station-classes  for  men  and  women  —  sepa- 
rate, of  course  —  bring  together  for  a  few  weeks  or  months, 
usually  in  the  winter  season  when  people  are  least  busy,  a  com- 
pany of  interested  Christians  or  inquirers  anxious  to  be  fitted 
for  usefulness  in  their  homes.  It  is  a  rare  privilege  to  have  in 
charge  such  a  class.  Some  are  stupid,  but  all  are  eager  learn- 
ers ;  for,  as  they  often  say,  "  This  is  heaven,"  and  such  heavenly 
privileges  are  rarely  undervalued  or  misimproved.  Hundreds 
every  year  gain  information  and  inspiration  in  these  classes 
that  enable  them  to  stand  alone  in  the  midst  of  persecution, 
and  become  a  savor  of  life  unto  life  among  unbelieving 
multitudes.  The  few  theological  schools  established  attempt  to 
do  more  thoroughly  for  chosen  young  men  of  the  Church  what 
station-classes  accomplish  for  the  uneducated  many  in  more 
advanced  life.  Chinese  seminary  students  are  most  thoroughly 
educated  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  work  of  evangelization  and 
the  regular  ministry,  and  in  these  institutions  are  men,  some 
of  whom  have  mastered  the  contents  and  drunk  in  the  spirit 
of  the  Bible  as  no  seminary  students  of  the  Occident  have  done. 

3.  Literature  in  Chinese  Missions.  —  As  no  other  missionary 
country  honors  literature  so  highly  as  China,  so  literary  work 
has  had  a  correspondingly  large  amount  of  attention  given  it. 

(i)  The  preparation  of  literature  of  every  variety,  Bibles, 
religious  treatises,  educational  works,  and  periodicals  both  secu- 
lar and  religious,  has  fallen  almost  entirely  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  missionaries.  Many  have  become  authors  who  have  no 
gifts  in  that  direction,  but  it  is  probably  true  that  no  country 
has  had  so  large  a  number  of  competent  translators  and  authors 
as  China.  Bible  translators,  like  Morrison,  Medhurst,  Bridg- 
man,  Blodget,  Burdon  and  Schereschewsky,  and  the  present 
committees  working  on  revised  versions,  are  men  to  be  grateful 


282  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

for,  even  if  some  of  the  earlier  generation  aimed  at  perspicuity 
and  elegance  of  diction,  rather  than  at  faithfulness  in  translat- 
ing the  sometimes  ambiguous,  and  to  the  Chinese,  distasteful 
statements  of  the  Scripture  writers. 

(2)  The  manufacture  of  books  is  an  effort  which  mission 
presses  have  undertaken  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  means 
competition  with  thousands  of  native  printers,  the  entire  outfit 
of  many  of  whom  might  be  packed  in  a  hand-satchel.  The  ex- 
periment of  Pi,  made  nearly  900  years  ago,  has  become  effec- 
tive in  the  elegant  movable  type  of  to-day,  and  though  the 
mission-press  compositor  may  be  bewildered  at  first  as  he 
stands,  like  a  man  in  a  museum,  in  the  midst  of  the  6,000  and 
more  compartments  of  his  gigantic  type-cases,  he  can  far  out- 
strip the  block-cutter,  both  in  speed  of  composition  and  beauty 
of  type. 

(3)  Practically  every  Protestant  missionary  and  native 
Christian  worker  in  China  aids  in  the  distribution  of  this  litera- 
ture. Inquirers  are  taught  to  read  by  means  of  books ;  schools 
and  training-classes  cannot  exist  without  them ;  and  they  are 
the  best  and  almost  only  agency  through  which  to  reach  the 
gentry  and  officials  of  the  Empire,  from  local  Nicodemuses  to 
the  occupant  of  the  Dragon  Throne.  Missionaries  and  colpor- 
teurs sell  books  or  judiciously  loan  or  give  them  away  in 
chapels  and  tea-shops,  at  fairs  and  near  the  gates  of  govern- 
ment examination-halls.  Books  are  a  legitimate  excuse  for 
the  foreigner's  presence  in  a  hostile  district,  and  the  native 
Book-lending  Societies  of  the  South  gain  an  entrance  for 
Christian  truth  by  their  means  into  country  schools  and  the 
homes  of  grandees. 

4.  Evangelistic  Work.  — (i)  Perhaps  the  most  profitable  ef- 
forts on  the  Chinese  field  are  those  in  which  the  missionary 
labors  with  individuals,  as  did  Jesus  at  the  Samaritan  well. 
This  form  of  effort  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  West  that  it 
needs  no  description. 

(2)  If  most  of  the  work  thus  far  described  resembles  that 
done  in  missions  at  home,   chapel  preaching  presents   some 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  283 

unique  features.     These  buildings  are  usually  rented  shops, 
located  on    frequented  city  streets    and  open    to  all  comers. 
Though  the  place  is  a  cheerless  one  and  provided  with  rude, 
backless  seats  and  only  doubtful  means  of  warmth  in  the  win- 
ter, a  respectable  audience,  or  even  a  crowd,  soon  gathers  to 
gaze  at  the  "  foreign  devil,"  or  to  hear  singing  which  is  so  un- 
orthodox, because  not  falsetto  in  character.    The  singing  over, 
and  politeness    having  overcome  their    prejudices,  they  are 
seated.     In  new  districts  it  will  hardly  do  to  offer  prayer,  as 
this  proceeding  might  be  mistaken  for  a  magic  incantation  to 
entrap  them,  and  so  cause  a  stampede.    Few  can  hope  to  hold 
an  audience  if  a  long  passage  of  Scripture  is  read.    Beginning 
immediately,  therefore,  the  missionary,  by  conversation  or  sim- 
ple address,  attempts  to  bring  before  his  auditors  the  great  facts 
of  God,  sin  and  salvation.     Interruptions  are  numerous ;  pea- 
nut venders  may  shout  their  wares ;  old  friends  recognize  each 
other  across  the  room  and  start  an  animated  conversation ;  an 
opium-smoker  attempts  to  create  a  disturbance ;  an  intermittent 
procession  of  smokers  circulates  about  the  stove  or  incense- 
spiral  to  light  their  pipes ;  a  passing  mandarin  or  a  street  brawl 
calls  out  the  entire  audience  to  "  behold  the  hot  racket,"  etc., 
etc.     But  they  soon  return,  and  comers  and  goers  keep  the 
chapel  supplied  all  day  long.     Preaching  alternates  with  tea- 
drinking,  conversations  with  groups,  reading  and  the  sale  of 
books  and  Scriptures,  and  instruction  of  any  inquirers  present. 
(3)   Itineration  requires  some  nerve  and  great  powers  of 
adaptation.    Journeying  on  foot,  by  wheelbarrow,  cart,  sedan- 
chair,  or  boat,  a  walled  city  is  visited,  usually  on  a  day  when  a 
fair  is  being  held.    Armed  with  books  and  Scriptures,  the  itiner- 
ant takes  up  his  position  on  the  side  of  the  narrow,  crowded 
street  and  amid  the  bedlam  of  shouting  sellers  of  all  kinds  of 
commodities  he  speaks  his  message  as  he  is  able.    Very  rarely 
is  one  stoned  out  of  the  city  and  work  can  be  continued  till 
nightfall,  if  throat  permits.     The  curious  crowd  tenders  an 
evening  reception  at  the  inn,  but  this  is  compensated  for  at  its 
close,  when  not  infrequently  an  awakened  searcher  after  Truth 


284  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

remains  to  continue  till  midnight,  perhaps,  a  conversation  that 
angels  might  rejoice  to  hear. 

In  villages  this  itineration  is  much  less  taxing  and  more 
fruitful.  Seated  beside  the  village  well,  or  standing  on  the 
steps  of  the  dingy  temple,  groups  of  farmers  just  in  from  the 
fields  and  often  w^omen  —  v^^ho  rarely  appear  in  public  in  the 
cities  —  gather  round  to  look  on  and  hear  the  stranger's  words. 
A  talk-sermon,  general  friendliness,  catechisms  or  tracts  bought 
and  perhaps  a  few  simple  characters  written  on  the  hard  earth 
of  the  highway  or  threshing-floor  to  testify  to  the  truth  of  the 
gospel,  are  the  means  used  by  the  Spirit  to  regenerate  lives. 

Where  such  itineration  is  systematic  and  progress  can  be 
made,  as  in  the  field  of  the  American  Presbyterians  and  Eng- 
lish Baptists  in  Shan-tung,  this  work  is  exceedingly  valuable. 
The  German  missionaries  in  Kwang-tung  are  also  great  be- 
lievers in  country  work,  as  contrasted  with  the  more  unfruitful 
efforts  made  in  Chinese  cities.  The  late  Dr.  Nevius  was  the 
leading  advocate  of  the  fully  developed  village-circuit  system, 
which  is  described  in  his  "  Methods  of  Mission  Work."  In  a 
word,  his  plan  is  to  interest  villages  through  itineration,  and  as 
soon  as  inquirers  appear,  make  the  ablest  of  them  the  leader 
of  the  group.  These  meet  periodically  for  the  study  of  a 
graduated  series  of  lessons  and  for  worship.  The  leaders  are 
themselves  instructed  through  station-classes  at  the  mission- 
aries' homes. 

III.  The  Boxers  and  the  Christian  Church.  —  In  Part 
I  of  this  chapter  a  few  of  the  leading  causes  of  the  recent  cata- 
clysm in  China  have  been  given.  Some  of  the  factors  men- 
tioned there  are  more  fully  discussed  here,  though  in  this  place 
the  effect  of  the  uprising  on  Christianity  is  under  consideration. 

I.  That  missionaries  and  converts,  both  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant, had  some  share  in  producing  the  awful  events  of  1900 
must  be  admitted ;  though  the  feeling  against  them  was  due  to 
their  foreign  origin  or  sympathies,  rather  than  to  their  Christian 
activity.  So  far  as  Protestant  missionaries  were  concerned, 
they  were  more  omnipresent  than  their  Catholic  fellow-laborers, 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  285 

since  the  latter  seclude  themselves  in  great  measure  and  do  little 
promiscuous  and  public  work.  As  has  been  seen,  the  writings 
of  some  of  these  missionaries,  notably  Timothy  Richard  and 
Young  J.  Allen,  had  a  large  share  in  influencing,  not  only  the 
reformers,  but  the  Emperor  as  well.  "  The  North  China  Her- 
ald," the  best  informed  periodical  in  the  Far  East,  "  has  stated 
that  a  proposal  was  made  to  the  Emperor  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Board  of  Rites  that  Protestant  Christianity  should  be  the 
State  religion  of  the  Empire,  a  Parliament  formed  and  the 
queue  abolished;  that  this  memorial  was  intercepted  by  the 
President  of  the  Board,  who  denounced  his  subordinate  to  the 
Emperor;  that  the  Emperor  thereupon  promoted  the  Secre- 
tary and  cashiered  the  President ;  and  that  this  led  to  the  coup 
d'etat."  Whether  this  is  true  or  not,  there  is  evidence  that  the 
Emperor  was  favorably  inclined  toward  Protestant  work.  This 
was  a  sufficient  reason  for  utter  abhorrence  of  missionaries  on 
the  part  of  the  Chinese  Court  and  the  conservatives. 

Native  Protestant  Christians  are  usually  more  pronounced 
than  Catholics  in  their  unwillingness  to  conform  to  such  prac- 
tices as  ancestral  worship,  the  observance  of  the  spring  festival 
for  sweeping  the  graves,  etc.  When  to  this  is  added  the  occa- 
sional differences  between  Protestants  and  other  Chinese,  in 
which  the  former  are  usually  in  the  right  and  consequently  may 
win  in  lawsuits  or  village  quarrels,  we  discover  an  additional 
cause  of  friction.  Other  causes  of  animosity  are  the  difficulty 
in  securing  property  for  mission  purposes,  in  which  the  native 
Christians  often  aid  the  foreigner;  their  refusal  to  contribute 
to  the  fund  for  holding  theatrical  exhibitions,  which  causes 
their  neighbors  to  pay  an  extra  quota;  their  often  injudicious 
manner  of  presenting  Christianity  as  it  stands  related  to  Con- 
fucianism, etc. 

Aside  from  the  causes  for  irritation  already  mentioned,  there 
was  in  a  number  of  localities,  especially  in  the  southern  half  of 
the  Empire,  mutual  hostility  betzveen  Protestants  and  Catholics, 
almost  wholly  due  to  the  latter.  While  such  a  statement  may 
be  attributed  to  the  odium  theologicum,  so  far  as  it  emanates 


286  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

from  the  missionary  body,  or  to  international  jealousies  ex- 
hibited by  officials  of  Catholic  and  Protestant  countries,  the 
impartial  observer  must  certainly  acknowledge  that  a  large 
preponderance  of  wrong  is  to  be  attributed  to  Catholicism. 
Sufficient  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  was  necessarily 
much  feeling  between  non-Christians,  especially  of  the  official 
class,  and  the  Church,  whether  Protestant  or  Catholic. 

2.  When  the  storm  burst  in  1899  and  1900,  the  leaders  of 
the  new  sects  were  most  in  disfavor.  Upon  the  missionaries, 
therefore,  was  vented  the  utmost  injury  that  Chinese  hatred 
could  suggest.  Happily,  martyrdoms  were  confined  to  the 
provinces  of  Shan-tung,  where  one  missionary  was  martyred ; 
Che-kiang,  where  eight  adults  and  three  children  were  slain; 
Chi-li,  where  seventeen  —  including  four  children  —  met  their 
death;  and  Shan-si,  the  bloody  field  of  persecution,  where  113 
adults  and  forty-six  children  received  their  crown.  This  makes 
a  total  of  135  adults  and  fifty-three  children,  188  in  all.  An 
incomplete  list  of  Catholics  who  were  slain  gives  the  number  of 
men  as  thirty-five  and  the  women  as  nine. 

The  heroism  of  these  nineteenth  century  martyrs  is  admira- 
bly set  forth  in  Mr.  Broomhall's  "  Martyred  Missionaries," 
1 901,  a  volume  concerning  which  Professor  Warneck  says: 
"  The  most  penetrating  glimpse  of  this  fearful  slaughter,  which 
has  nothing  to  compare  with  it  in  the  history  of  modern  mis- 
sions, is  given  by  Broomhall."  Readers  are  referred  to  that 
volume  and  to  Dr.  Smith's  "China  in  Convulsion"  for  the 
sad  details.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  great  heroism  displayed 
by  the  sufferers,  and  their  continuance,  even  during  the  death 
march,  to  bless  the  Chinese  by  word  and  deed,  have  resulted  in 
the  same  fruitage  that  was  noted  in  the  case  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian witnesses. 

3.  As  for  the  native  martyrs,  some  tens  of  thousands  in  num- 
ber, it  is  remarkable  with  what  fortitude  they  endured  the  fear- 
ful tortures  that  were  the  fiery  chariot  upon  which  they  rose  to 
heaven.  There  is  no  item  mentioned  in  Hebrews  xi.  35-38  that 
was  not  true  of  these  Chinese  heroes  of  the  faith ;  and  thost 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  287 

who  escaped  the  sword  and  "  wandered  in  deserts  and  moun- 
tains and  caves  and  holes  of  the  earth  "  were  more  to  be  pitied 
perhaps  than  their  brethren  whose  sufferings  were  compara- 
tively brief.  One  of  the  most  pathetic  features  of  this  time  of 
persecution  was  the  willingness  of  the  Christians  to  befriend 
the  missionaries,  even  when  it  meant  death  or  grave  peril  to 
themselves.  Even  in  the  province  of  Shan-si,  where  the  Gov- 
ernor had  given  orders  to  kill  all  Christians  and  where  those 
who  wrote  letters  to  the  foreigners  were  mercilessly  slain,  this 
loyalty  was  constantly  manifest. 

"  The  manner  in  zvhich  the  Christians  met  their  terrible  suf- 
ferings was  a  perpetual  astonishment  to  their  tormentors.  They 
could  not  understand  what  inspired  the  calm  courage  of  the 
tall  and  stalwart  Teacher  Liu  of  Shan-si,  who  sat  calmly  in 
his  room  fanning  himself  and  awaiting  the  advent  of  the 
Boxers,  who  killed  him  instantly ;  nor  that  of  the  Peking  dea- 
con, who  put  on  his  best  clothes  and  went  out  to  meet  them 
joyfully,  facing  death  with  a  smile.  Was  it  any  wonder  that 
the  Boxers  in  their  superstition  cut  out  the  hearts  of  such  peo- 
ple to  ascertain  the  source  of  their  more  than  human  courage  ?  " 
Fear  and  hatred  of  Christians  did  not  cease  with  their  san- 
guinary deaths.  "  The  notion  widely  prevailed  that  within 
three  days  they  would  rise  from  the  dead,  unless  energetic 
steps  were  taken  to  prevent  it.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  so 
many  were  cut  in  pieces  and  burned,  in  exceptional  cases  the 
ashes  being  passed  under  stone  rollers  and  dispersed  to  the 
winds." 

4.  What  has  been  the  effect  of  these  persecutions  upon  the 
Chinese  Church f  It  was  a  time  of  sifting.  As  would  happen 
in  Christian  lands,  if  church  members  had  to  face  the  alterna- 
tives of  awful  torture  and  death,  or  the  renunciation  of  their 
Master,  so  in  China  many  have  denied  their  Lord.  In  the  case 
of  some  others  who  have  survived  without  such  denial,  the 
return  of  partial  peace  finds  them  full  of  bitterness  or  even 
revenge  toward  neighbors  who  had  turned  Boxers  and  been 
guilty  of  such  cruelty  to  members  of  their  families  or  to  them- 


288  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

selves.  In  a  few  instances  they  have  even  given  their  consent 
that  these  authors  of  their  sufferings  should  be  punished  by 
death.  In  still  other  cases  the  reaction  in  favor  of  followers  of 
the  foreigners  and  the  opportunity  to  share  in  the  ill-gotten 
gains  of  the  foreign  soldiery  have  made  them  care  more  for 
money  and  loot  than  for  their  religion.  In  the  case  of  Catho- 
lics there  is  a  disposition  to  exact  exorbitant  reparation,  both  in 
money  and  lives,  for  the  injuries  endured,  which  makes  them, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  all  Christians,  an  offense  to  the  people 
at  large. 

Having  said  the  worst  that  can  be  urged  against  the  native 
Church,  it  is  an  occasion  for  gratitude  to  be  able  to  add  that 
the  uprising  has  not  been  without  its  blessings.  An  unexpected 
strength  has  been  evidenced  and  multitudes  of  Christians  will 
find  all  future  ostracism  and  persecution  trifling  compared 
with  the  sufferings  of  the  past.  The  object-lesson  of  testify- 
ing even  unto  death  has  been  a  salutary  one  to  both  Christians 
and  their  opposers  in  scores,  if  not  hundreds,  of  districts. 
Future  converts  will  count  the  cost  as  never  heretofore,  with 
the  result  that  few  will  enter  the  Christian  Church  who  are  not 
really  changed  men  and  women.  The  burden  of  holding  the 
little  circles  of  believers  together  has  necessarily  come  upon  the 
native  leaders,  and  this  has  shown  what  is  possible  for  them  in 
the  new  day  which  is  dawning  over  blood-stained  China. 

But  the  strongest  impression  that  is  left  as  a  legacy  to  the 
native  Church  is  that  of  God's  providence  and  care  for  His 
own.  In  the  two  provinces  of  Chi-li  and  Shan-si,  where  the 
losses  were  the  greatest,  this  confidence  is  quite  prevalent 
among  the  Christians.  When  the  French  Minister,  M.  Pichon, 
in  a  cold  state  document  sent  to  the  President  of  France,  is 
impelled  to  file  a  long  series  of  "  ifs,"  the  existence  or  non- 
existence of  which  circumstances  would  have  been  the  doom 
of  diplomats  and  Christians  alike,  one  is  not  surprised  at  its 
introductory  and  closing  paragraphs.  "  It  is  a  wonder  the  be- 
sieged were  able  to  resist  and  be  saved.  A  series  of  extraordi- 
nary events,  the  origin  of  which  was  less  the  will  of  men  than 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  289 

the  occurrence  of  circumstances  which  could  not  be  foreseen, 
was  the  only  thing  which  prevented  the  general  massacre  to 
which  they  seemed  condemned.  .  .  .  Our  salvation,  there- 
fore, resulted  from  a  chain  of  events  which  cannot  be  explained 
by  logical  reason  and  rational  considerations."  Professor 
Gamewell,  the  Methodist  missionary  whose  skill  in  erecting 
the  fortifications  of  the  besieged  legations  had  more  to  do 
with  their  salvation  than  almost  any  other  human  factor,  has 
ever  since  been  proving  to  deeply  awed  audiences  that  only  the 
providence  of  God  and  the  prayers  of  countless  thousands  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe  can  account  for  M.  Pichon's  "  series 
of  extraordinary  events,"  the  origin  of  which  was  not  the  will 
of  men.  Chinese  Christians  cannot  learn  of  the  agonizing 
prayer  of  all  Christendom  offered  in  behalf  of  themselves  and 
their  missionary  leaders,  without  being  filled  with  gladness 
and  the  strength  begotten  of  a  real  communion  of  saints  and 
the  manifest  intervention  of  God,  the  Father  Almighty.  When, 
therefore,  the  blood-red  balance  line  is  drawn  in  this  divine 
ledger  of  gain  and  loss,  the  balancing  entry  is  "  an  exceeding 
weight  of  glory."  A  virile  stock  is  still  left  in  the  earth,  prov- 
ing that  in  this  Chinese  Armageddon,  though  there  has  been 
"  a  tumultuous  noise  of  the  kingdoms  of  nations  gathered  to- 
gether, the  Lord  of  hosts  mustereth  the  host  of  the  battle." 

IV.  Protestant  Missions  and  the  New  Regime. —  i.  On 
returning  to  their  stations, the  missionaries  face  nearly  the  same 
conditions  in  the  South  that  surrounded  them  early  in  1900. 
There  is  greater  insolence  in  many  cases,  but  this  is  more  than 
offset  by  a  marked  friendliness  on  the  part  of  officials  who  are 
clear-sighted  enough  to  realize  the  needs  of  the  future  and  the 
large  place  in  the  coming  renaissance  that  must  be  filled  by 
missionaries.  The  once  bitterly  hostile  Hu-nan  grants  a  royal 
.welcome  to  Protestant  missionaries,  who  have  responded  in 
some  cases  only  to  urgent  invitations  before  entering  the  prov- 
ince. And  in  the  North  the  only  male  survivor  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board's  Mission  in  Shan-si,  Dr.  Atwood,  writes  thus  of 
the  reception  accorded  to  representatives  of  different  societies 


290  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

whose  members  were  brutally  slaughtered,  some  of  them  by 
the  Governor's  own  hands.  "  When  the  missionaries  returned 
to  Tai-yuen-fu  for  the  first  time  after  the  massacre,  it  was  a 
sad  but  triumphal  return." 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  settlement  of  the  troubles  had 
been  arranged  in  a  conference  between  Rev.  Timothy  Richard 
—  who  had  been  invited  to  Peking  for  the  purpose  —  and  the 
Chinese  Peace  Commissioners  and  the  Shan-si  Governor.  So 
wise  were  the  suggestions  of  this  "  best  known  and  most  repre- 
sentative Protestant  missionary  in  China  "  that  Li  Hung-chang 
was  "  exceedingly  pleased  with  the  moderation  of  the  demands, 
exclaiming  that  never  yet  had  there  been  in  China  such  an  en- 
lightened and  moderate  gentleman  as  Dr.  Richard  had  shown 
himself  to  be,  and  that  if  these  suggestions  were  put  into  effect, 
there  would  be  no  more  missionary  troubles  in  the  Empire." 

2.  Problems  of  course  there  are,  and  how  to  solve  them  is 
the  crucial  question  facing  the  missionaries  in  at  least  three- 
fourths  of  the  Empire.  Even  the  brick  and  mortar  question  of 
a  place  of  abode  and  the  adjustment  of  indemnities  are  most 
serious,  since  there  is  not  a  single  mission  station  north  of 
the  Yang-tsze  that  remains  uninjured,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  P'ang-chuang,  the  home  of  the  well-known  author, 
Arthur  Smith.  Providentially  the  Imperial  province  of  Chi-li 
has  not  only  approved  of  the  action  taken  by  the  much  traduced 
missionary,  Dr.  Ament,  in  arranging  for  suitable  indemnities, 
but  they  have  carried  on  his  unfinished  work,  and  friction  aris- 
ing from  this  cause  will  not  occasion  much  trouble.  In  Shan-si, 
however,  the  case  is  different,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  Em- 
pire ill-will  is  to  be  expected. 

The  readjustment  of  stations  will  be  a  difficult  matter  to 
arrange,  especially  if  comity  is  regarded  and  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  missionary  secretaries  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  carried  out.  Where  work  has  been  taken  up  for 
providential  reasons  that  no  longer  exist,  and  in  places  where 
different  missions  have  been  located  so  near  each  other  as  to 
occasion  a  duplication  of  work,  it  will  be  wise  to  reconsider 


CHINA   AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  29I 

locations,  with  the  possibiHty  of  occasioning  bitterness  among 
brethren  or  of  leaving  a  work  uncared  for. 

In  case  nezv  buildings  are  erected  and  helpers  reengaged,  a 
whole  group  of  questions  arises.  Has  too  much  money  been 
spent  on  the  plant  heretofore?  If  so,  what  shall  be  the  new  rule 
of  expenditure?  Has  not  the  missionary  in  the  initial  stages 
of  the  work  in  a  given  place  depended  too  much  on  paid 
helpers?  In  that  case,  how  can  a  higher  stage  of  independence 
be  insisted  upon  when  many  Christians  have  been  impover- 
ished, or  thrown  wholly  out  of  employment  ?  It  may  be  a  good 
opportunity  to  drop  from  the  list  of  employees  men  who  have 
been  inefficient  or  lacking  in  character ;  but  to  do  so  now  will 
increase  ill-will  when  the  closest  of  ties  ought  to  unite  mission- 
ary and  converts.  Moreover,  the  missionary  cannot  at  present 
visit  many  stations  and  must  depend  upon  these  helpers. 

The  question  of  what  is  to  be  done  with  church  members 
who,  in  the  recent  troubles,  recanted  or  otherwise  compromised 
with  heathenism  is  the  most  delicate  problem  of  all.  Dr.  Smith, 
in  the  January,  1901,  "  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,"  thus 
states  the  questions  involved :  "  What  ought  to  be  the  principle 
in  dealing  with  cases  of  this  sort,  and  are  they  all  to  be  treated 
as  on  the  same  footing?  There  are  many  cases  in  which  there 
is  reason  to  suspect  that  a  church  member  has  displayed  a 
wholly  unchristian  spirit,  and  has  taken  vengeance  upon  his 
persecutors,  as  well  as  upon  those  who  were  not  in  any  way 
identified  with  the  Boxer  movement,  by  getting  them  punished 
as  such.  The  line  between  the  satisfaction  of  justice  and  the 
thirst  for  vengeance  per  se  is  often  by  no  means  an  easy  one  to 
trace,  and  the  missionary  who  finds  himself  with  a  tangled 
crop  of  such  cases  on  his  hand  has  need  for  the  wisdom  which 
is  at  once  pure  and  peaceable."  As  to  Christians  guilty  of  re- 
cantation at  a  time  when  human  nature  was  under  so  terrible  a 
strain,  divine  wisdom  is  requisite  in  order  to  maintain  the  pur- 
ity of  the  Church  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  fall  short  of  that 
sympathy  which  said,  "  Neither  do  I  condemn  thee ;  go,  and 
sin  no  more." 


292  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

3.  A  different  series  of  problems  arises  in  the  attempt  to 
answer  the  question,  What  lines  of  effort  and  what  changes  of 
method  are  demanded  by  the  new  conditions  of  the  twentieth 
century,  the  first  of  China's  modern  life?  Two  representative 
Chinese, — Minister  Wu,  at  Washington,  and  the  late  Li  Hung- 
chang,  —  have  repeatedly  said  that  educational  and  medical 
missionaries  were  needed,  with  an  implication  that  others  were 
not  desired.  The  one  book  that  has  been  Imperially  endorsed 
and  most  widely  read  by  the  Chinese  —  over  a  million  copies 
having  been  published  —  is  "  China's  Only  Hope,"  by  the  most 
far-sighted  and  influential  of  the  Empire's  great  triumvirate. 
The  Viceroy  Chang  Chih-tung  wrote  before  the  late  uprising, 
but  his  words  are  indicative  of  the  present  sense  of  need 
throughout  China,  in  so  far  as  it  is  adequately  appreciated.  A 
few  points  made  by  Viceroy  Chang  may  be  suggestive  in  the 
formulation  of  a  new  policy  for  some  classes  and  sections  of 
China. 

Speaking  of  the  daily  press  of  Western  lands,  he  lauds  its 
power  as  making  the  five  continents  as  if  they  lived  face  to 
face,  and  he  urges  the  establishment  and  wide  use  of  this  en- 
lightening agency.  Commenting  upon  that  section  of  the  book 
an  English  missionary  writes :  "  In  this  respect  the  work  of 
the  missionary  press  cannot  be  overestimated.  In  Fu-chau, 
Shang-hai,  Han-kau,  Canton,  there  are  large  establishments, 
nearly  all  American,  entirely  occupied  in  the  production  of 
Christian  and  educational  literature,  either  in  permanent  book 
form,  or  as  magazines  or  papers.  Many  millions  of  pages  are 
issued  annually  from  these  Christian  presses  for  the  enlighten- 
ment and  intelligence  of  China." 

After  discussing  the  weakness  and  strength  of  the  existing 
competitive  examination  system  and  suggesting  changes,  the 
Viceroy  takes  up  the  broader  question  of  general  education. 
He  enlarges  upon  that  reform  edict  of  the  Emperor  in  which 
the  establishment  of  common  schools  was  ordered  throughout 
the  land,  using  therefor  Buddhist  and  Taoist  temples  and 
monasteries ;  above  and  in  addition  to  these,  universities  and 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  293 

colleges  must  be  founded.  Concerning  these  he  writes  :  "  The 
Imperial  province  should  have  a  university,  the  prefectures 
should  have  colleges  and  the  counties  should  have  day-schools. 
In  the  day-schools  the  course  of  study  should  comprise 
Confucius,  Mencius,  the  geography  and  history  of  China, 
mathematics,  map-drawing  and  the  elements  of  science.  The 
curriculum  of  the  colleges  should  comprise  all  this,  and  in 
addition  the  remainder  of  the  Classics,  a  wider  grasp  of 
history,  the  science  of  government  and  the  study  of  foreign 
languages.  In  the  university  the  study  of  these  subjects 
should  be  pursued  more  thoroughly." 

Another  sort  of  missionary  that  will  be  more  useful  than 
hitherto  is  the  experienced  worker,  who  for  decades  has  lived 
himself  into  the  life  of  the  people,  thoroughly  learned  their 
language,  read  their  Classics,  and  assimilated  their  views. 
Many  a  man  besides  Timothy  Richard  is  now  being  cultivated 
by  high  officials,  and  under  the  surface  is  exerting  an  influence 
of  inestimable  value  on  the  coming  China.  A  well-known  col- 
lege president  in  a  private  letter  queries  whether  with  these 
new  opportunities  he  ought  not  to  lay  aside  most  of  his  college 
duties  and  give  himself  to  this  form  of  effort. 

V.  The  Outlook.  —  This  has  already  been  anticipated, 
though  only  as  it  affects  work  already  begun.  The  question 
has  been  widely  raised  by  the  occurrences  of  the  past  two 
years,  whether  after  all  it  is  worth  while  to  press  the  missionary 
enterprise  among  a  people  capable  of  such  ingratitude,  who, 
as  a  rule,  are  satisfied  with  things  as  they  are  and  prefer  not 
to  have  missionaries  reside  among  them.  Others  are  asking 
whether  the  Chinese  are  really  worth  saving. 

I.  So  far  as  official  utterances  go,  the  prospects  for  the 
future  are  encouraging.  The  document  emanating  from  the 
Court  and  relating  to  the  establishment  of  a  new  Council  of 
State  is  most  significant.  Only  one  of  its  ten  articles  can 
be  quoted :  "  5.  Where  native  methods  come  short,  Western 
methods  are  to  be  used  to  supplement  them.  With  a  view 
to  this  the  translations  of  foreign  books  are  to  be  collected 


294  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  compared,  and  our  Ministers  to  Japan  and  other  countries 
are  to  be  called  on  for  reports  on  the  state  and  progress  of 
those  nations.  For  us  the  example  of  Japan  is  of  special 
interest  —  not  only  as  belonging  to  Asia,  but  for  having  in 
a  short  time  risen  to  a  place  of  power  and  influence." 

In  Sir  Robert  Hart's  epitome  of  the  Emperor's  recent 
Reform  Edict  are  other  signs  of  great  promise.  A  few 
extracts  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  whole.  "  The  Empress 
Dowager  has  decided  to  push  on  reform  and,  as  a  preliminary, 
sets  aside  such  hampering  distinctions  as  ancient  and  modern, 
native  and  foreign.  Whatever  is  good  for  the  State  or  for 
the  people,  no  matter  what  its  origin,  is  to  be  adopted ; 
whatever  is  bad  is  to  be  cast  out,  no  matter  what  be  its 
antiquity.  Our  national  fault  is  that  we  have  got  into  a  rlit 
hard  to  get  out  of,  and  are  fettered  by  red  tape  just  as  diffi- 
cult to  untie.  Bookworms  are  too  numerous,  practical  men 
too  scarce ;  incompetent  red-tapists  grow  fat  on  mere  forms, 
and  officials  think  that  to  pen  a  neat  dispatch  is  to  dispose 
of  business.  Old  fossils  are  continued  too  long  in  office,  and 
openings  are  blocked  for  men  possessing  the  talents  and  quali- 
fications the  times  require.  One  word  accounts  for  the  weak- 
ness of  the  Government  —  selfishness  ;  and  another  for  the  de- 
cadence of  the  Empire  —  precedent.  All  this  must  be  changed. 
Those  who  have  studied  Western  methods  have  so  far  only 
mastered  a  smattering  of  language,  something  about  manufac- 
ture, a  little  about  armaments ;  but  these  things  are  merely  the 
skin  and  hair ;  they  do  not  touch  the  secret  of  Western  superi- 
ority —  breadth  of  view  in  chiefs,  concentration  in  subordi- 
nates, good  faith  in  undertakings,  and  effectiveness  in  work. 
What  must  be  insisted  on  as  a  principle  is  that  self  shall  be 
nothing  and  public  duty  everything.  We  ourselves  and  the 
Empress  Dowager  have  long  cherished  these  ideas ;  and  now 
the  time  has  come  to  put  them  in  force.  Whether  the  State  is 
to  be  safe  or  insecure,  powerful  or  feeble,  depends  on  this." 
^  Even  allowing  for  the  foreign  equation  evident  in  this 
edict,  there  is  still  much  ground  to  believe  that  the  Emperor 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  29$ 

is  anxious  for  reform,  and  as  such  he  should  have  the  hearty 
sympathy  of  Christendom.  Moreover,  prayer  should  not  be 
lacking  for  one  who,  as  Rev.  Arnold  Foster,  in  a  letter  to  the 
London  "  Spectator "  of  December  29,  1900,  asserts  "  was 
studying  the  Bible  and  was  favorable  to  Christianity.  And 
he  sees  no  reason  to  doubt  what  has  further  been  said,  that 
ever  since  the  Emperor's  practical  deposition  he  has  been 
praying  to  God  —  the  God  of  the  Christians  —  that  He  would 
restore  him  to  the  throne,  and  that  even  in  the  darkest  days 
through  which  he  has  been  passing,  he  has  steadfastly  believed 
his  prayers  will  be  answered."  One  is  the  more  ready  to  credit 
this  report,  for  the  reason  that  others  near  to  the  Emperor, 
whose  names  cannot  be  made  public,  are,  according  to  the 
most  indubitable  evidence,  studying  Christianity,  and  in  a  few  , 
cases  are  ready  to  profess  their  faith  in  Christ  so  soon  as  it  \/» 
is  permissible.  ; 

2.  Turning  from  the  Court  to  the  reform  element  in  the  Em- 
pire, there  is  good  reason  to  hope  that  Protestant  missions  will 
be  more  influential  in  the  future  than  in  the  past.  In  a  notable 
series  of  articles  on  "  China :  the  Outbreak  and  the  Outlook," 
written  —  presumably  by  Rev.  G.  F.  Smith  —  for  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  "  Intelligencer,"  February  to  April  issues, 
1901,  are  these  words :  "  If  we  have  succeeded  in  showing  that 
the  Reform  Movement  is  the  brightest  and  indeed  the  only 
hope  that  is  left  for  China,  and  that  it  has  hitherto  received 
from  Christian  missions  its  best  impulses,  does  it  not  follow 
that  the  zealous  prosecution  of  missionary  work  is  the  most 
promising  of  all  means  whereby  it  is  within  the  power  of  for- 
eigners to  assist  the  Chinese  to  set  their  house  in  order?  So 
far  from  the  foreign  governments  being  called  to  trammel  mis- 
sions by  restrictions,  as  some  of  them  have  been,  we  are  per- 
suaded that  it  would  be  an  excellent  investment  on  their  part 
to  subsidize  them  generously,  —  on  their  part,  but  for  the  sake 
of  the  missions  themselves  we  rejoice  to  know  that  such  a 
thing  is  impossible ;  for  such  assistance  would  undoubtedly 
hinder  their  good  work  even  more  than  any  coercive  measures 


296  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  restraint  could  effect.  On  the  one  hand,  let  the  pecuniary 
cost  and  the  moral  effects  of  military  expeditions  be  con- 
sidered :  the  former  in  a  few  months  computed  to  have 
amounted  to  over  sixty  millions  sterling,  many  times  more  than 
all  the  Protestant  missions  of  America  and  England  have  cost 
during  the  sixty  years  that  they  have  had  access  to  China ;  the 
latter  calculated  to  leave  an  indelible  dishonor  on  the  troops  of 
some,  at  least,  of  the  Christian  nations.  And  on  the  other 
hand,  let  it  be  realized  how  much  missionaries  have  succeeded 
in  winning  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  reflecting  classes 
in  China :  the  facts  just  adduced,  showing  how  their  counsel 
and  help  have  been  welcomed  in  regard  to  matters  of  vital 
moment  to  China  and  yet  considerably  removed  from  the 
proper  business  of  their  special  vocation,  are  eloquent  wit- 
nesses as  to  this.  The  fact,  also,  that  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  —  the  two  nations  which  furnish  the  majority  of 
the  Protestant  missionaries  in  China  —  are  the  most  trusted  by 
the  people,  and  especially  so  in  the  provinces  —  such  as  Fo- 
kien  —  where  missionaries  are  most  numerous,  also  tells  in  the 
same  direction." 

3.  Does  any  one  believe  that  the  Chinese  converts  are  a 
hopeless  element  in  the  future  of  the  Empire?  Their  con- 
stancy and  the  encomiums  showered  upon  them  by  men  who 
had  previously  slandered  them,  such  as  the  famous  London 
"  Times  "  correspondent,  Dr.  Morrison,  are  a  sufficient  answer 
to  any  such  scepticism.  We  add  a  testimony  from  a  writer 
whose  opportunities  for  comparative  study  of  Asiatic  peoples 
have  been  unsurpassed,  Mrs.  Bishop,  F.R.G.S.  At  the  New- 
castle Church  Congress,  of  September,  1900,  she  said :  ''  In 
the  course  of  two  years  I  traveled  8,000  miles  in  inland  China ; 
and  in  the  course  of  these  journeys  visited  seventy-three  mis- 
sion stations.  Everywhere  small,  ofttimes  very  small,  com- 
munities of  persons  had  been  formed,  who  by  their  abandon- 
ment of  ancestral  worship  and  idolatrous  social  customs,  were 
subjected  to  a  social  ostracism,  and  who,  partly  in  consequence, 
dung  together  as  brethren  with  a  tenacity  similar  to  that  which 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  297 

finds  its  secular  expression  in  the  powerful  Chinese  organiza- 
tions known  as  guilds.  These  converts  live  pure  and  honest 
lives ;  they  are  teachable,  greedy  of  Bible  knowledge,  generous 
and  self-denying  for  Christian  purposes,  and  so  anxious  to 
preserve  the  purity  of  their  brotherhood  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  such  abuses  as  disfigured  the  Church  of  Corinth 
to  find  a  place  in  the  infant  churches  of  China.  Above  all, 
every  true  convert  becomes  a  missionary,  and  it  is  in  this  spirit 
of  propagandism  that  the  hope  for  the  future  lies.  After  eight 
and  a  half  years  of  journeyings  among  Asiatic  peoples,  I  say 
unhesitatingly  that  the  raw  material  out  of  which  the  Holy 
Ghost  fashions  the  Chinese  convert,  and  ofttimes  the  Chinese 
martyr,  is  the  best  stuff  in  Asia."  Such  words  from  a  person, 
who  was  once  a  disbeliever  in  missions  are  doubly  significant. 

4.  Among  the  non-Christian  masses  of  China,  there  is  a  deep 
need  of  better  things.  Their  representative,  Chang  Chih-tung, 
speaks  of  material  wants  to  be  satisfied  by  the  West.  "  If  the 
circulation  is  good,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  body  will  be 
in  health.  If  the  ears  and  eyes  are  open,  reliable  information 
can  enter;  and  if  the  heart  and  brain  are  exercised,  proficiency 
will  result.  The  ears  and  eyes  are  the  foreign  periodicals, 
the  heart  and  brain  are  the  colleges,  and  the  circulation  is  the 
railway."  While  a  professed  Confucianist,  he  cannot  forget 
that  China  also  has  a  soul  and  that  its  needs  may  find  satisfac- 
tion from  Christian  springs.  "  Just  now  Christianity  is  in  the 
ascendant.  Buddhism  and  Taoism  are  decadent;  their  in- 
fluence cannot  long  hold  its  own.  Buddhism  has  long  since 
passed  its  meridian ;  Taoism  has  only  demons,  not  gods." 

Men  by  the  million  in  unconscious  need  are  also  those  who 
may  effect  much  for  the  future  Church  of  China,  if  brought  into 
the  light.  Said  Rev.  W.  T.  A.  Barber,  formerly  of  Wu-chang, 
at  the  1900  Convention  of  British  Student  Volunteers :  "  What 
think  you,  then,  will  happen  when  they  feel  that  glorious  glow  ? 
Think  of  their  tremendous  power  of  organization  by  which 
their  guilds  have  had  a  continuous  and  powerful  life  for  cen- 
turies past.    Yes,  it  is  such  a  practical  race,  possessed  of  strong 


298  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

organizing  power  that,  once  turned,  must  be  a  mighty  mis- 
sionary factor  in  the  furthest  East.  Unlovely  now,  they  need 
but  His  light  to  make  them  shine ;  and  notwithstanding  all  dis- 
couragements, do  you  wonder  that  Chinese  missionaries  be- 
lieve in  the  material  on  which  they  have  to  work,  and  are  the 
most  hopeful  of  men?  Said  I  not  rightly,  O  young  men  and 
women,  that  before  you  lies  in  China  the  toughest-fibred, 
sturdiest,  most  vertebrate  of  the  nations  of  the  East,  whom  to 
win  to  Christ  is  worth  the  utmost  and  most  joyous  self-sacri- 
fice and  toil  ?  " 

5.  Another  hopeful  feature  in  the  New  China  is  the  colossal 
advertising  that  has  been  given  this  field.  Prayer  and  sym- 
pathy without  stint  have  been  lavished  upon  this  age-old  Em- 
pire. The  very  seriousness  of  the  missionary  crisis  has  brought 
the  boards  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  and  the  societies  of 
Europe  together  in  a  common  council  of  war.  Missionary  sec- 
retaries and  delegations  have  been  specially  dispatched  to  study 
on  the  ground  the  pressing  needs  of  the  immediate  future.  As 
many  of  these  are  working  in  unison,  there  is  a  strong  proba- 
bility that  the  new  campaign  will  be  conducted  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  comity  and  with  the  teachings  of  the  rapidly 
formulating  science  of  missions. 

6.  Possibly  the  reader  will  object,  that  while  the  above 
grounds  of  hope  have  a  substantial  basis,  there  is  yet  to  be 
considered  the  missionaries  themselves,  who  have  been  under 
a  galling  fire  of  criticism.  True;  but  in  the  opinion  of  those 
best  informed,  they  have  come  out  of  the  worse  than  Boxer  up- 
rising of  humorist,  ignorant  and  prejudiced  tourist,  omniscient 
stay-at-home  journalist,  and  atheist,  with  some  wounds,  yet 
with  colors  flying  and  a  reputation  increased  rather  than  sul- 
lied. Mr.  Bredon,  Deputy  Inspector-General  of  Chinese  Cus- 
toms, who  was  in  Peking  and  witnessed  all  that  happened  in 
that  storm-center  of  anti-missionary  criticism,  administers  a 
deserved  rebuke  to  all  such  persons.  Writing  to  the  "  North 
China  Daily  News,"  he  says :  "  I  regret  extremely  to  see  pub- 
lished in  some  papers  and  reproduced  in  others  the  following 


CHINA    AND    ITS    DEPENDENCIES  299 

Statement  regarding  missionary  behavior  during  the  Legation 
siege  at  Peking :  '  Their  conduct  during  the  siege  has  not  been 
very  creditable.  They  have  exhibited  anything  but  a  Christian 
spirit,  and  have  the  reputation  of  being  the  biggest  looters  in 
Peking.'  I  cannot  conceive  where  the  writer  gets  justification 
for  such  a  statement.  I  was  during  the  siege  a  member  of  the 
General  Purposes  Committee,  which  had  surveillance  of  prac- 
tically everything  but  the  fighting,  and  in  that  position  had  the 
best  possible  opportunity  of  knowing  what  was  going  on,  and 
I  can  say  that  the  conduct  of  the  missionaries  was,  in  my  opin- 
ion, not  only  creditable,  but  admirable.  ...  I  heard  in 
the  Legation  before  we  were  enabled  to  leave  it,  that  the  mis- 
sionaries had  taken  quantities  of  loot.  I  took  special  pains  as 
a  committeeman  to  investigate  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  and 
I  found  absolutely  nothing  to  confirm  it."  When  such  color- 
less testimony  of  one  little  interested  in  Christianity  is  supple- 
mented by  the  official  utterances  of  Ministers  Pichon,  Conger 
and  MacDonald,  warmly  commending  the  missionary  body, 
the  carpings  of  misinformed  or  disingenuous  critics  may  be 
neglected. 

One  strong  objection  still  remains.  It  is  said  by  some  that 
if  missionaries  are  what  the  most  impartial  testimony  claims  for 
them,  it  is  nevertheless  wholly  impracticable  or  even  zvrong  for 
ladies  to  return  to  so  sanguinary  a  field ;  or  if  they  do  go  back, 
they  certainly  ought  not  to  leave  the  neighborhood  of  foreign 
soldiers  and  diplomats.  The  best  reply  to  this  objection  is 
found  in  the  weighty  "  Intelligencer  "  articles  already  quoted. 
"  No  mission  agents  have  proved  so  effective  in  these  last  days 
as  Christian  women.  They  have  gone  forth  in  hundreds  and 
have  spread  like  the  gentle  dew  over  the  land.  By  their  very 
helplessness  they  have  disarmed  hostility,  and  then  by  their 
love  and  tact  have  won  esteem.  A  ready  entrance  has  been 
yielded  to  them  by  their  Chinese  sisters  to  their  homes  and  to 
their  hearts.  The  soil  they  cultivate  has  been  the  most  neg- 
lected, the  ignorance  of  Chinese  women  might  well  appal ;  but 
their  plodding  labors  have  denied  all  suggestion  to  despair,  and 


300  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  little  ones  at  least  have  responded  brightly  to  their  efforts. 
China  has  treated  some  of  them  cruelly ;  but  it  would  be  wholly 
unfair  to  let  the  wild  acts  of  a  few  fanatics  in  two  or  three 
provinces,  or  of  an  excitable  and  superstitious  peasantry  un- 
der incitement  from  their  superiors,  cause  us  to  forget  the  im- 
munity which  our  sisters  have  enjoyed  for  many  years  in  nearly 
all  the  eighteen  provinces  of  the  Empire.  China  needs  them ; 
and  we  believe  it  has  learnt  the  fact  and  would  say  so  with  sin- 
cere and  pathetic  earnestness,  if  the  question  were  referred  to  it. 
China  needs  them,  if  reform  is  to  reach  below  the  surface  and 
to  be  a  living  and  a  lasting  thing.  And  they  will  go ;  of  that 
there  is  no  doubt.  As  the  door  reopens,  they  will  return  to 
pursue  their  work  of  patient,  untiring  love.  Whatever  safe- 
guards for  their  protection  experience  can  suggest  will  of 
course  be  availed  of;  but  under  normal  conditions  their  own 
character  and  conduct,  next  to  their  trust  in  the  Everlasting 
Arm,  will  be  in  the  future,  as  they  have  been  in  the  past,  their 
best  and  surest  safeguards." 

7.  A  final  word  from  Griffith  John,  one  of  the  most  heroic 
figures  now  on  the  field,  should  be  a  clarion  call  to  Christians 
the  world  around.  "  The  great  need  of  China  to-day  is  vital 
religion.  What  the  Chinese  need  above  all  else  is  a  heavenly 
principle  that  shall  infuse  a  new  moral  and  spiritual  life  into  the 
nation,  a  mighty  power  that  shall  transform  them  in  their  in- 
most being,  a  divine  inspiration  that  shall  create  within  their 
own  breast  aspirations  after  holiness  and  eternal  life.  In  other 
words,  what  they  need  is  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  Apart 
from  Christianity  I  can  see  no  hope  for  China.  There  is  no 
power  in  the  religious  systems  of  the  country  to  develop  a  holy 
character,  a  true  manhood.  China  cannot  advance  in  the  path 
of  true  progress  without  a  complete  change  in  the  religious 
life  of  the  nation.  It  is  Christ  alone  who  can  lead  in  the  glo- 
rious dawn  of  the  Chinese  renaissance ;  the  new  birth  of  a 
mighty  nation  to  liberty  and  righteousness  and  ever-expanding 
civilization.  Feeling  this  to  be  true,  in  our  heart  of  hearts, 
we,  the  missionaries,  have  come  to  China  to  preach  Christ,  unto 


CHINA    AND   ITS    DEPENDENCIES  3OI 

one  a  stumbling  block  and  unto  another  foolishness,  but  unto 
them  that  are  called,  Christ  the  power  of  God  and  the  wisdom 
of  God.  This  is  our  work,  and  woe  to  us  if  we  turn  our  backs 
on  it.  Let  the  people  of  God  in  Christian  lands  be  of  good 
courage.  These  troubles  in  China  will  soon  be  over  and  the 
demand  for  missionaries  will  be  greater  than  ever.  China  will 
soon  be  prepared  for  the  churches ;  will  the  churches  be  pre- 
pared for  China?  May  God  so  move  the  Christians  at  home 
that  they  shall  be  prepared  to  joyfully  undertake  the  new  duties 
and  responsibilities  which  the  new  China  shall  devolve  upon 
them." 


XII 


SIAM,   LAOS,   STRAITS   SETTLEMENTS   AND   PRO- 
TECTED   STATES 

PART    I.  —  GENERAL 

SiAM,  "  the  brown  race,"  is  known  locally  as  Muang  Thai, 
"  kingdom  of  the  free,"  while  Laos,  or  Lao,  is  from  the  Chi- 
nese word  meaning  ancient.  The  latter  country  constitutes  the 
northern  and  northeastern  frontier  of  Siam,  and  together  they 
occupy  the  central  portion  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula. 

I.  The  Land.  —  i.  The  area  of  Siam  is  somewhat  uncer- 
tain; but  deducting  the  110,000  square  miles  appropriated  by 
France  in  1893- 1896,  some  200,000  square  miles  still  remain, 
an  area  almost  equal  to  that  of  France  or  of  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States  plus  Virginia.  It  is  necessary  to  add  35,000 
square  miles  to  the  above  if  we  would  include  the  Straits  Set- 
tlements and  states  protected  by  Great  Britain. 

2.'  Configuration.  —  Three  distinct  areas  are  here  to  be 
noted.  The  first  of  these  is  the  hasin  of  the  Menam  River, 
which  is  a  plain  rising  slowly  at  first  and  then  rapidly,  as  one 
ascends  toward  the  northern  mountains.  This  district,  400 
miles  long  by  150  broad,  constitutes  most  of  the  kingdom 
proper  and  a  portion  of  the  northern  tributary  states.  It  also 
contains  Siam's  most  wealthy  section. 

The  basin  of  the  Mekong,  or  the  Lao  plateau,  is  more  ele- 
vated than  that  of  the  Menam  and  covers  a  territory  to  its 
eastward,  250  miles  by  300  miles  in  extent.  Notwithstanding 
the  Anglo-French  arrangement  of  1896,  the  region  may  still 
be  regarded  as  under  French  influence. 
302 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  3O3 

The  Malay  Peninsula  is  made  up  of  a  backbone  of  moun- 
tains flanked  by  descending  stretches  of  undulating-  and  dense 
forests,  interspersed  with  occasional  open  grassy  plains. 
Nearer  the  coasts,  swamps  occasionally  appear.  The  southern 
portion  of  this  peninsula  contains  the  Straits  Settlements,  a 
crown  colony  of  Great  Britain,  whose  influence  also  extends 
as  far  northward  as  the  southern  limits  of  Burma,  though  the 
protected  Malay  states  reach  no  further  than  6°  N.  It  is  in 
these  protected  states  that  the  extensive  tin  deposits  are  found 
which  furnish  half  the  output  of  the  entire  world. 

3.  Scenery  and  Vegetation.  ■ —  Except  along  the  rivers  the 
country  is  covered  with  pathless  jungles  or  primeval  forests, 
which,  owing  to  the.  hot  moist  climate  and  fertile  soil,  are 
scarcely  inferior  in  exuberance  and  variety  to  those  of  neigh- 
boring tropical  archipelagoes.  "  In  addition  to  the  teak  and 
gum  trees,  the  bamboo,  vanilla,  rattan,  palms  and  gutta  percha 
plants,  the  tourist  notes  the  more  familiar  oaks,  pines  and 
chestnuts  of  Occidental  countries.  Siam  also  claims  to  be  the 
garden-land  of  the  world  —  the  land  of  fruits  and  flowers  and 
of  never-ending  summer,  with  grand  old  trees  overshadowing 
every  hamlet,  and  plant  life  in  fullest  variety  bursting  on  every 
side  from  the  fertile  soil."  While  the  cultivated  plants  in- 
clude many  tropical  products,  rice  of  some  forty  varieties  is 
the  chief  article  of  diet.  A  journey  through  the  forests  would 
disclose  herds  of  wild  elephants,  the  number  of  which  may  be 
imagined  from  the  fact  that  in  two  Lao  states  alone  18,000 
have  been  domesticated  and  are  thus  an  important  source  of 
wealth. 

II.  Climate  and  Health.  —  i.  Considering  the  fact  that 
these  countries  lie  wholly  within  the  tropics,  the  climate  is 
very  endurable.  "  April  is  the  hottest  month  of  the  year,  but 
even  then  the  temperature  rarely  rises  above  94°  in  a  well- 
constructed  house,  and  as  a  rule  there  are  cool  breezes  at  night. 
The  average  temperature  for  the  year  is  81  °." 

2.  As  for  healthfulness,  Dr.  Dean,  a  missionary  resident  in 
Bangkok,  said,  when  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  "  Do  not  rep- 


304  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

resent  the  climate  of  Siam  as  insalubrious.  People  die  here ; 
so  they  do  everywhere  else  except  in  heaven.  Here  people 
sometimes  die  of  fever,  of  dysentery,  of  cholera,  and  sometimes 
men  dig  their  own  graves  with  a  brandy  bottle.  The  report 
that  Siam  is  unhealthful  is  a  libel  on  the  climate."  At  one 
time  there  were  eight  aged  Americans  in  the  city  of  Bangkok 
who  had  spent  from  twenty  to  forty  years  there  and  were  still 
hale  and  hearty. 

III.  The  People.  —  i.  The  population  of  Siam  as  it  stands 
since  the  French  annexation  is  estimated  at  5,000,000.  Be- 
fore annexation  its  estimated  8,000,000  were  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  Siamese,  2,500,000 ;  Laotians,  2,000,000 ;  Chinese, 
1,000,000;  Malays,  1,000,000;  other  races,  1,500,000.  Latterly 
the  Chinese  have  rapidly  increased  so  that  they  may  number 
3,000,000  or  more.  A  further  population  of  1,230,000  should 
be  added  for  the  Straits  Settlements  and  Protected  States. 

2.  "  The  Siamese,"  writes  Mr.  Black,  "  are  essentially  peace- 
ful and  indolent.  They  are  very  social,  vain,  and  fond  of 
bright  dresses  and  jewelry.  Their  intercourse  with  each  other 
is  conducted  with  a  ceremonious  attention  to  distinctions  of 
rank.  They  are  a  small,  well-proportioned  race,  with  olive- 
colored  skin,  black  hair,  slight  black  mustache  and  no  beard. 
They  shave  the  heads  of  their  children  with  the  exception  of  a 
tuft  on  the  crown,  which  is  cut  off  with  great  ceremony  at 
puberty.  The  hair  is  then  allowed  to  grow  in  the  usual  fashion, 
both  sexes  being  alike  closely  cropped.  The  national  dress 
both  for  men  and  women  consists  of  a  bright  colored  panung 
—  a  cotton  or  silk  cloth  arranged  somewhat  in  the  form  of 
Turkish  trousers  and  reaching  to  the  knee.  The  houses  are 
built  of  wood  or  bamboo  thatched  with  the  leaf  of  the  attap 
palm,  and  are  raised  a  few  feet  from  the  ground  on  piles.  Fur- 
niture there  is  none,  unless  a  mosquito  net,  a  mat  or  two,  and 
cooking  and  betel  utensils  be  reckoned  furniture."  Rice  and 
curry,  dried  fish  and  fruit,  are  the  food  stuffs,  while  betel- 
nut  chewing  and  smoking — from  infancy  almost  —  are  uni- 
versal.    Travelers  are  repelled  at  first  by  the  black  and  pol- 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  3O5 

ished  teeth  of  the  Siamese,  due  to  the  use  of  betel-nuts.  A 
characteristic  vice  of  Siam  is  gambhng,  which,  however,  may 
be  indulged  in  only  in  licensed  government  gambling  houses, 
save  at  the  New  Year  and  on  two  or  three  other  great  holidays 
when  it  is  allowed  elsewhere. 

3.  The  Lao  and  Shan  inhabitants  of  Siam,  though  having 
different  names,  are  essentially  the  same  race.  Some  have  re- 
garded them  as  originally  inhabiting  the  Yang-tsze  basin, 
whence  they  were  driven  southward  into  Indo-China  by  the 
advance  of  the  Chinese.  They  were  possibly  the  primitive 
stock  of  the  Siamese  race. 

They  are  described  as  being  taller  and  better  formed  than 
the  Siamese,  are  "  strong,  slender  and  rather  graceful.  Their 
skin  is  yellowish-white,  becoming  brown  on  exposed  parts  of 
the  body.  The  eyes  are  oblique,  the  hair  straight  and  black 
and  is  usually  shaved  off,  except  a  tuft  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
They  are  garrulous,  vain,  cunning,  gentle,  peaceable,  lazy  and 
not  exclusive."  They  care  much  for  the  family  life  and  are 
said  to  be  morally  superior  to  the  surrounding  races. 

The  men  dress  much  like  their  neighbors  in  the  South, 
though  among  some  of  the  tribes  the  common  people  are  tat- 
tooed from  the  waist  to  the  knees  with  devils,  monkeys,  bats, 
etc.  The  garments  of  their  women,  however,  differ  widely 
from  those  of  the  Siamese,  being  more  complete  and  modest. 

4.  The  languages  of  the  Siamese,  Laotians  and  Shans  are 
said  to  be  dialects  of  the  Shan  proper.  Indeed,  so  nearly  alike 
are  the  two  former  that  until  within  a  decade  the  missionaries 
were  not  fully  agreed  as  to  whether  preparing  a  separate  Bible 
for  the  Laotians  was  a  justifiable  expenditure  of  time  and 
money.  Like  the  Chinese  the  language  is  monosyllabic  and 
labors  under  the  consequent  difficulties  of  tones,  aspirates  and 
the  multiplication  of  synonyms.  It  lacks  the  article,  distinct 
forms  for  singular  and  plural,  declension  and  conjugation  ex- 
cept by  auxiliaries,  and  is  deficient  in  connective  particles. 
The  written  character  differs,  that  of  Laos  being  of  the  same 
type  as  the  Burmans  and  Shans  use  and  based  on  the  Pali, 


3o6      ■  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

while  the  Siamese  alphabet  is  said  to  be  of  Cambodian  origin. 
The  latter  is  written  below  the  line,  if  on  ruled  paper,  and 
"  the  words  run  together  unbroken  by  spaces,  points  or  capitals. 
There  are  marks  to  denote  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  para- 
graphs." While  the  difficulties  named  above  and  others,  such 
as  the  blunder  of  using  holy  nouns  and  pronouns  for  one's  self 
instead  of  with  reference  to  the  King  and  Buddha  only, 
delay  the  early  and  intelligent  preaching  of  missionaries,  they 
can  always  secure  auditors,  since  the  natives  listen  with  the 
idea  that  there  is  merit  derivable  from  permitting  religious 
sounds  to  fall  on  the  ear,  even  if  not  understood.  If  English 
is  resorted  to  in  teaching  natives,  a  tinge  of  Orientalism  ap- 
pears, as  witness  these  equivalents  given  by  a  Siamese  teacher, 
as  told  by  Miss  Cort :  Flattery,  a  good  kind  of  curse-word ; 
whiskey,  sin-water;  preach,  a  missionary-verb;  large,  an  ad- 
jective of  preacher ;  daughter,  a  girl-son ;  modesty,  a  good  ad- 
jective of  girl;  angel,  God's  boy.  Both  in  Siam  and  Burma 
the  language  has  been  for  centuries  in  written  form  and  a 
considerable  literature,  largely  religious,  was  in  somewhat 
common  use  long  before  the  coming  of  missionaries. 

5.  The  Chinese,  212,194  of  whom  landed  in  the  Straits  Set- 
tlements in  1895  alone,  besides  large  numbers  who  enter  Siam 
proper  every  year,  are  mostly  from  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung  and  resemble  their  countrymen  in  industry  and  thrift. 
"  Chinese  coolies  do  the  chief  part  of  both  skilled  and  un- 
skilled labor  in  the  South,  especially  in  the  mills  and  in  min- 
ing." The  principal  commerce  of  the  capital  itself  is  in  their 
hands  also.  Their  energy  and  rapid  increase,  as  well  as  their 
organization  through  secret  societies,  are  a  source  of  difficulty 
and  foreboding. 

6.  Social  conditions  and  progress  are  far  from  satisfactory. 
Domestic  slavery  at  present  is  only  allowable  in  case  of  debt. 
Throughout  the  whole  of  Siam,  however,  natives  are  liable 
to  forced  labor  for  the  Government  from  one  to  three  months 
annually.  This  law  sadly  interferes  with  private  enterprises, 
especially  agriculture,  and  gives  a  great  advantage  to  Chinese, 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  307 

Hindus  and  other  immigrants  who  are  not  subject  to  it. 
Another  obstacle  to  progress  is  the  fact  that  all  male  Siamese 
are  obliged  to  enter  the  priesthood  for  a  time  and  be  clad  in 
yellow  robes,  with  head  and  eyebrows  shaved,  and  then  beg 
their  bread  from  door  to  door.  Until  the  King's  European 
visit  of  1897,  Siam  was  further  hampered  by  the  unjustifiable 
actions  of  France.  M.  Hanotaux's  abrogation  of  the  objec- 
tionable clause  of  the  1893  treaty  has,  however,  removed  this 
obstacle.  During  recent  years  telegraph  lines,  railways,  elec- 
tric cars,  steam  mills  and  an  internal  and  international  postal 
system  have  been  introduced,  and  promise  much  for  the  future. 

IV.  Religions.  —  i.  The  State  religion  is  Buddhism  of 
the  southern  variety  and  consequently  is  based  on  the  Pali 
books.  Siam  is  thus  intimately  connected  with  Ceylon,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  protector  of  Buddhism.  It  is  even  said  that  it 
is  found  in  greater  purity  in  this  kingdom  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world,  and  the  oft-repeated  statement  that  Bud- 
dhism costs  its  worshipers  $2.50  per  capita  annually  is  proba- 
bly true  in  Siam.  Siamese  Buddhism  is  divided  into  two  sects. 
The  older,  or  unreformed,  is  again  subdivided,  one  party 
"  holding  more  to  meditation,  the  other  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  reformed  sect  attaches  more  weight  to  the 
observation  of  the  canon  than  to  meditation."  A  missionary 
writes:  "  We  seldom  go  out  but  we  meet  persons  on  their 
way  to  or  from  the  temples,  and  they  never  go  empty-handed. 
The  most  fragrant  flowers,  and  largest,  ripest  and  most  lus- 
cious fruit,  the  whitest  rice  and  most  savory  curry  and  daintiest 
sweetmeats,  the  richest  and  best  of  all  foods  and  drink  are 
daily  offered.  Scores  of  people  who  may  never  have  a  coat 
or  jacket  for  their  own  bodies  will  yet  buy  yards  and  yards  of 
white  cloth  and  give  it  for  funeral  and  other  ceremonies,  or 
dye  it  yellow  for  the  priests." 

2.  The  above  description  should  he  modified  by  Coutts  Trot- 
ter's statement  that  "  Buddhism  is  corrupted  by  a  general  wor- 
ship or  propitiation  of  nats  or  phees  (spirits,  or  demons)  ; 
superstition  in  the  more  remote  districts  constitutes  practically 


308  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  only  religion  of  life.  There  are  local  earth  divinities  to 
whom  temples  or  shrines  are  erected ;  others  with  human  or 
animal  forms  dwell  in  the  water;  others  cause  children  to 
sicken  and  die ;  others  wander  and  deceive  as  ignes  fatui.  By 
certain  spells  men  can  become  tigers  or  werewolves.  The 
numerous  offerings  and  honors  paid  to  these  spirits  lead  to 
drunkenness  and  to  killing  animals  in  sacrifice.  Phallic  wor- 
ship prevails  to  a  considerable  extent,  notwithstanding  the  at- 
tempts of  the  king  to  put  it  down." 


PART  II.— MISSIONARY 

Approaching  Indo-China  in  our  missionary  tour  of  the 
globe,  we  first  reach  the  Straits  Settlements  and  the  neigh- 
boring protected  states  to  the  North.  Thence  we  shall  pass 
onward  to  Siam  and  to  the  inland  mission  field  of  Laos. 

I.  Straits  Settlements  and  Protected  States.  —  In 
the  early  days  of  China's  closed  doors,  Malacca,  Singapore  and 
other  places  in  the  vicinity,  were  the  training  school  and  work- 
shop of  Chinese  missions.  Here  such  famous  men  as  Milne, 
Medhurst  and  later  Dr.  Legge,  learned  the  language,  prepared 
literature,  and  founded  schools  and  an  Anglo-Chinese  College, 
while  they  labored  along  evangelical  lines  among  the  thousands 
of  Chinese  who  were  here  accessible  as  their  brethren  in  the 
Middle  Kingdom  were  not.  With  the  opening  of  that  Empire 
in  i860,  the  necessity  for  working  outside  its  limits  ceased,  and 
Chinese  missionaries  here  were  drawn  off  to  China. 

1.  The  organisations  at  zvork  are  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel,  the  English  Presbyterian  Mission,  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Plymouth  Brethren,  Church 
of  England  Zenana  Mission,  and  the  Methodist  Board,  North, 
from  the  United  States.  The  Young  Women's  Christian  As- 
sociation is  also  doing  good  service  in  Singapore. 

2.  A  distinguishing  feature  of  missionary  operations  here, 
especially  in  the  great  cosmopolitan  port  of  Singapore,  is  its 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  309 

polyglot  character.  While  English  or  Malay  comes  nearest 
being  a  common  tongue,  church  services  are  more  or  less  of  a 
Babel  in  some  cases.  Thus  in  S.  P.  G.  chapels  the  polyglot  dif- 
ficulty "  is  partially  met  by  the  prayers  being  said  in  one  dia- 
lect, the  lessons  read  in  two  others,  while  the  sermon  is 
preached  in  Hokien  and  rendered  by  the  catechist  into  Can- 
tonese." This  Society,  and  others  also,  need  to  employ  helpers 
of  various  nationalities,  especially  those  speaking  three  or  four 
Chinese  dialects,  and  others  who  know  Tamil,  and  Malay.  The 
missionary  is  always  handicapped  when  a  colleague  is  on  fur- 
lough who  speaks  another  language  than  his  substitute;  and 
as  in  educational  work  English  is  the  commonest  medium  of 
instruction,  the  pressure  of  school  duties  prevents  such  mis- 
sionaries from  fully  mastering  any  new  language. 

3.  Much  of  the  work  here  is  self-supporting.  Naturally  the 
foreign  community  would  meet  most  or  all  of  the  expense  of 
the  church  where  they  worship,  and  would  also  contribute  lib- 
erally to  the  strictly  missionary  operations  of  that  church. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  the  S.  P.  G.  and  the  Meth- 
odist societies.  Then  the  Chinese  among  whom  most  of  the 
missionary  work  is  done,  are  well-to-do,  some  of  them  hav- 
ing the  reputation  of  being  millionaires  even.  This  compar- 
ative ease  in  securing  financial  independence  is  different  from 
anything  that  we  have  hitherto  seen.  With  the  grants-in-aid 
received  from  the  British  Government  for  schools,  local  con- 
tributions in  many  instances  more  than  meet  the  local  expenses 
of  the  mission  and  pay  part  of  the  salaries  as  well.  One  fea- 
ture of  the  missionary  program  aiding  in  this  direction  is  Wes- 
tern education,  which  is  of  such  manifest  advantage  to  the  boys 
and  young  men  that  their  parents  gladly  meet  the  fees. 

4.  The  question  is  often  asked.  Is  this  support  gained  at  too 
great  a  price,  paid  in  the  direction  of  being  obligated  to  do 
what  is  not  for  the  best  interests  of  missions?  The  English 
Presbyterians  were  inclined  to  think  that  in  school  work  that 
was  true,  and  consequently  they  have  just  handed  over  their 
strongest  institution  to  the  Methodists.     The  ground  which 


3IO  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

this  Church  holds  is  thus  stated  by  Rev.  C.  C.  Kelso,  who  is 
speaking  of  the  Methodist  Anglo-Chinese  School  at  Singa- 
pore which  has  had  as  many  as  1,007  pupils  in  a  single  year, 
two-thirds  of  them  from  Chinese  homes :  "  The  School  has 
been  thoroughly  loyal  to  Christ  and  the  Bible.  These  boys 
sing  Moody  and  Sankey  songs.  All  the  work  is  done  in 
English.  We  begin  the  school  with  singing,  then  read  from 
one  of  the  Gospels  which  is  explained  and  then  applied  as  di- 
rectly as  possible ;  so  that  five  days  in  the  week  we  preach 
a  sermon  to  our  boys.  Many  hear  the  gospel  in  this  way  for 
the  first  time  and  our  hearts  are  made  glad  as  we  note  the  in- 
terest they  show.  Many  of  them  become  Christians.  Loyalty 
to  the  Bible  has  been  maintained  at  great  expense  in  the  loss 
of  boys  that  we  might  otherwise  get.  Through  the  boarding 
department  of  the  School,  it  is  made  a  thoroughly  Christian 
home.  Our  school  buildings  some  time  ago  were  in  bad  con- 
dition. The  Chinese  trustees  resolved  to  rebuild  them  and 
pledged  or  secured  $9,000  of  the  $14,000  necessary;  but  when 
the  old  buildings  had  been  torn  down  a  few  men  tried  to  force 
us,  by  threats  of  the  withdrawal  of  subscriptions,  to  ex- 
clude the  Bible.  When  we  said  that  ours  was  a  mission  school, 
their  subscriptions  were  withdrawn.  We  decided  to  go  on 
with  the  work  depending  on  God  for  the  necessary  money,  and 
last  April  the  building  was  opened,  the  money  having  all  been 
provided.  A  great  impression  was  made  on  the  community. 
Surely  the  Lord  was  with  us.  We  can  do  better  work  now 
than  before  and  provide  for  the  future,  especially  in  the  line 
of  higher  education."  One  result  of  receiving  government  aid 
is  at  once  an  advantage  and  a  source  of  anxiety  to  those  in 
charge  of  schools.  The  money  paid  is  dependent  on  the  grade 
of  scholarship  attained,  thus  securing  on  the  one  hand  a  far 
higher  degree  of  excellence,  and  on  the  other  demanding  a 
larger  corps  of  superior  instructors. 

5.  Though  this  field  is  a  comparatively  new  one  in  its  mod- 
ern occupation,  it  is  regarded  as  very  promising.  To  be  sure 
the  constituency  is  constantly  changing,  as  the  Chinese  and 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  3II 

Hindus  are  migratory  in  their  habits ;  and  it  is  Hkewise  true 
that  the  Malay  Mahommedan  looks  upon  the  missionaries  as 
being  without  true  religion,  and  hence  resolutely  opposes  the 
Occidental  heretic.  Aside  from  his  rejection  of  the  foreign 
teacher,  the  latter  does  not  find  him  especially  hopeful  at  his 
ordinary  valuation.  Here  is  Dr.  Oldham's  pen  portrait  of  the 
native :  "  The  Malay  is  lethargic  because  of  the  condition  in 
which  he  finds  himself.  Life  under  the  equator  does  not  tend 
to  activity.  The  sea  is  full  of  fish,  the  shores  covered  with 
cocoanut-groves,  the  rice-fields  easily  produce  their  crops. 
He  builds  himself  a  house  on  stilts  on  the  margin  of  the  sea, 
or  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  so  that  when  the  tide  comes  in  the 
water  will  flow  under  the  house.  The  windows  are  built  so 
that  leaning  on  his  elbow  he  can  look  out  of  them  and  fish, 
the  kindly  ocean  bringing  the  fish  to  his  very  window.  Lying 
there  he  may  catch  enough  for  his  wants.  The  cocoanut-grove 
behind  the  hut,  without  any  care  from  him,  will  produce  its 
unfailing  crop  of  nuts.  The  rice-fields  need  but  little  atten- 
tion. Why  should  the  Malay  exert  himself?  You  talk  to  him 
concerning  the  civilized  life  of  other  men  and  the  unceasing  ac- 
tivity and  tireless  energy  of  the  West,  and  he  looks  at  you 
through  his  large,  soft  eyes,  shrugs  his  shoulders  and  says  a 
single  word,  *  Susa,'  • —  *  It  is  difficult.'  "  If  he  is  so  fortunate 
as  to  own  even  a  single  superior  durian  tree,  he  may  be  able 
to  sell  the  year's  yield  for  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  dollars 
while  the  fruit  is  yet  half-grown. 

In  the  Chinese,  and  especially  those  who  are  the  sons  or 
grandsons  of  early  immigrants  and  who  have  Malay  blood  in 
their  veins,  there  is  much  hope.  Of  these  "  Straits-horn  "  Chi- 
n^.y^, Bishop  Thoburn  writes:  "  What  is  witnessed  in  Singapore 
and  Penang  will  probably  be  repeated  with  modifications  all 
over  the  islands.  The  Chinese  will  penetrate  everywhere ;  will 
take  the  lead  in  every  form  of  industrial  enterprise ;  will  become 
in  time  amalgamated  with  the  present  inhabitants ;  and  thus 
there  will  gradually  rise  up  a  new  people,  combining  in  their 
character  the  patient  power  of  application  of  the  Chinamen  with 


312  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  pride  and  courage  of  the  Malay.  In  other  words,  a  new 
race  will  ultimately  and  at  no  distant  day  appear  upon  the 
stage,  and  enter  upon  a  career  of  progress  worthy  of  the  splen- 
did heritage  which  God  in  His  providence  appears  to  be  pre- 
paring for  it.  They  cherish  no  dream  of  returning  to  the  land 
of  their  ancestors,  and  they  not  only  take  pride  in  the  fact  that 
they  are  British  subjects,  but  speak  with  unaffected  contempt 
of  '  those  Chinamen,'  as  they  designate  the  China-born  portion 
of  the  community  to  which  they  belong."  Conversions  among 
them  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  the  S.  P.  G.  missionaries 
report  that  they  prove  very  helpful  to  the  Church  in  China,  in 
case  they  return  to  their  homes. 

II.  Siamese  Missions.  —  i.  Societies.  —  This  work 
which  began  with  the  arrival  of  Giitzlaff  and  Tomlin  in  1828 
and  was  afterward  taken  up  by  the  American  Board  and  the 
American  Baptists,  has  in  later  years  been  mainly  in  the  hands 
of  the  Presbyterian  Board,  North.  The  Baptists  still  have 
representatives  in  Bangkok,  though  the  American  Board  with- 
drew in  1850;  and  the  American  Bible  Society  also  has  an 
agent  in  the  same  city,  whence  the  Scriptures  go  out  all  over 
Siam  and  Laos.  It  is  thus  a  field  worked  wholly  by  Ameri- 
cans, as  is  true  of  its  neighbor  on  the  North. 

2.  Government  favor  has  been  continuous  since  the  death 
of  the  usurping  monarch  in  1851.  His  nephew,  the  rightful 
King,  had  been  obliged  to  flee  to  a  Buddhist  monastery,  and 
there  he  engaged  the  services  of  an  American  Board  Mission- 
ary, Mr.  Caswell,  as  his  private  tutor.  Partly  in  consequence 
of  the  training  thus  received,  he  and  his  successors  have  ranked 
among  the  most  enlightened  of  Asiatic  sovereigns.  Though 
nominally  the  defenders  of  the  Buddhist  faith,  that  very  fact 
has  possibly  made  them  even  more  tolerant  than  Buddhists  or- 
dinarily are.  A  series  of  royal  decrees  and  deliverances  could 
be  quoted,  testifying  to  the  great  value  of  Protestant  missions 
to  the  Kingdom. 

This  favor  has  been  shown  in  a  multitude  of  ways.  The 
King  has  often  had  interviews  with  the  missionaries,  has  given 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  313 

money  once  and  again  to  aid  in  their  work,  has  requested  per- 
sons chosen  from  their  number  to  take  charge  of  government 
hospitals  and  other  philanthropic  institutions,  and  has  in  most 
public  ways  endorsed  their  activities  and  lives.  Thus  the  Hon- 
orable John  Barrett,  formerly  Minister  to  Siam,  said  recently 
in  a  public  address :  "  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  King 
is  to-day  the  great  head  of  the  Buddhist  faith,  and  yet  the  man 
of  all  Asiatics  who  is  helping  the  American  missionaries ;  the 
man  who  told  me  the  first  time  I  met  him,  that  he  wished  me 
to  understand  that  he  approved  of  the  American  missionaries; 
that  their  work  had  been  greatly  for  the  benefit  of  his  people, 
and  that  I  could  tell  the  people  in  America  they  were  welcome 
there,  and  that  he  wished  to  do  all  in  his  power,  by  law  and  by 
contributions  of  money,  to  help  the  important  work  to  go  on." 

3.  Though  a  missionary  of  what  is  now  the  American  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Union,  the  first  Mrs.  Judson,  was  really  the 
pioneer  in  Siamese  work,  —  she  studied  the  language  for  a 
year  and  a  half  and  translated  into  Siamese  a  catechism,  a  tract 
and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  as  early  as  1818,  ten  years  be- 
fore Giitzlaf f 's  arrival,  —  that  society  gave  up  its  Siamese 
work  in  1869  and  since  then  its  representatives  have  confined 
their  labors  to  the  Chinese  living  in  that  country  and  to  the 
Peguans.  One  of  the  happy  results  of  missionary  effort  in 
Burma  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  Peguan  Christians  in  that 
land  have  taken  such  interest  in  their  fellow  countrymen  in 
Siam  that  a  chapel  recently  erected  in  Tapowlom  mainly  owes 
its  existence  to  their  cooperation  and  interest. 

4.  It  must  be  regretfully  confessed  that,  while  in  very  few 
lands  missionaries  have  had  a  greater  and  more  honorable  part 
in  moulding  the  character  of  the  regenerated  nation,  there  are 
comparatively  few  Siamese  who  after  so  long  a  period  of  seed- 
sowing,  can  exhibit  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit.  Referring  to  this 
fact,  the  writer  of  the  Siamese  section  in  the  "  Historical 
Sketches  of  Presbyterian  Missions  "  says :  "  Patient,  arduous 
labor  has  been  expended  in  Siam  for  many  years  without  large 
visible  results.     The  enervating  climate,  necessitating  frequent 


314  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

changes  in  the  mission  force;  the  mobile,  unretentive  charac- 
ter of  the  people  whose  easy  acquiescence  is  more  discourag- 
ing than  opposition,  are  obstacles  which  call  for  faith  and  en- 
durance. Yet  grounds  for  encouragement  are  not  wanting. 
Buddhism  is  losing  ground;  fewer  men  go  into  the  priest- 
hood, so  that  in  Bangkok  there  are  but  half  as  many  as  there 
were  some  years  since.  Those  who  do  enter  the  priesthood 
remain  for  a  shorter  term  than  formerly.  '  The  King  himself 
only  remained  in  the  priesthood  a  month,  and  his  younger 
brother  recently  entered  it  for  three  days.'  Our  inference 
from  such  a  fact  is  confirmed  by  the  further  statement  that 
the  leading  priests  are  themselves  becoming  so  alarmed  that 
they  are  taking  vigorous  measures  to  defend  Buddhism  by 
printing  and  distributing  books  which  attack  Christianity  and 
uphold  the  native  religion."  The  Buddhist  high  priest  has 
been  recently  appointed  to  establish  schools  at  important 
temples  all  over  the  land,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  Chris- 
tian Sabbath  has  been  made  a  day  of  rest.  The  door  is  wide 
open,  as  is  proven  by  recent  friendly  acts  of  the  King  and 
Queen  toward  the  mission  schools  and  hospitals,  by  the  uni- 
formly kind  reception  given  the  missionaries  by  officials  and 
the  people  in  all  parts  of  the  Kingdom,  by  the  respectful  atten- 
tion paid  to  preaching,  and  by  the  expressed  desire  of  the  people 
for  the  establishment  of  Christian  schools.  This  is  especially 
true  of  higher  schools,  and  of  those  for  girls.  It  was  of  one  of 
the  latter,  the  Harriet  M.  House  School  for  Girls,  located  at 
Bangkok,  that  United  States  Minister  Barrett  said:  "The  King 
often  spoke  of  it  to  me;  and  the  young  Siamese  princes  who 
are  educated  are  coming  back  and  seeking  those  girls  as  their 
wives,  and  as  their  only  wives,  instead  of  following  the  old 
usage." 

HI.  Laos  Missions.  —  Penetrating  inland  500  miles  from 
Bangkok,  —  a  longer  journey  in  the  time  it  requires  than  from 
New  York  to  Siam,  —  one  finds  an  entirely  different  sort  of 
reception  accorded  to  the  gospel,  though  the  Laotians  are  like- 
wise Buddhists  and  of  nearly  the  same  race.     "  In  the  northern 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  315 

Laos  States  a  simpler,  more  natural  people  have  opened  their 
hearts  to  a  message  that  speaks  of  deliverance  from  evil  spirits 
and  the  terror  of  sin."  Hence  we  find  seven  times  as  many 
Christians  here  as  in  Siam,  though  the  field  has  been  occupied 
only  a  little  more  than  half  as  long.  As  previously  stated,  this 
country  is  under  the  sole  care  of  the  Presbyterian  Board, 
North.  Thus  far  their  stations  are  along  the  border  line  be- 
tween this  country  and  Siam  proper. 

I.  A  presumption  in  favor  of  Christianity  that  has  proven 
very  helpful  in  this  field  is  derived  from  a  widely  prevalent 
tradition  concerning  Punyah  Turn,  the  John  the  Baptist  of  a 
predicted  Buddhist  saviour.  Mr.  Dodd  thus  summarizes  this 
tradition  after  describing  the  salvation  expected :  "  Its  advent 
is  to  be  heralded  by  a  forerunner,  Punyah  Turn,  who  will  pre- 
pare the  way;  the  rough  places  shall  be  made  as  smooth  as 
'  temple  ground.'  Then  the  elder  brother  of  Buddha  is  to  be- 
come incarnate  as  a  saviour.  His  name  is  Alen-yah  Mettai. 
Only  the  good  shall  be  able  to  see  him,  but  all  who  see  him 
shall  be  saved.  The  proclamation  to  the  Laos  people  of  this 
fulness  of  time  and  the  completed  salvation  is  predicted  to  be 
by  a  foreigner  from  the  South.  He  is  to  be  a  man  with  white 
hair  and  a  long  beard,  who  will  not  fly  in  the  air  like  a  bird, 
neither  will  he  walk  on  the  earth  like  a  beast,  but  who  will 
come  bringing  in  his  hands  the  true  ten  commandments.  All 
this  has  been  remarkably  fulfilled.  In  1868  the  Rev.  D.  Mc- 
Gilvary  and  the  Rev.  J.  Wilson  came  to  Cheungmai  from  the 
South.  They  came  by  boat  and  personally  they  very  well  an- 
swered the  description  of  the  heralds  of  the  true  religion. 
Nearly  every  year  in  the  sixth  month  there  is  an  excitement 
somewhere  in  the  Laos  country  over  the  reputed  appearing  of 
the  Messiah  or  his  forerunner.  Frequently  we  are  told,  when 
urging  people  to  accept  Christ  at  once,  *  Wait  this  year ;  if 
Punyah  Turn  does  not  appear  in  the  sixth  month,  then  Jesus 
must  be  the  one  for  whom  we  are  looking.'  " 

The  practical  zvorkings  of  this  belief  are  interesting  to  note. 
In  touring  it  leads  to  a  semi-worship  of  the  books  and  pictures, 


3l6  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  of  the  missionaries  themselves,  by  the  people  who  get  the 
idea  that  Jesus  is  to  be  the  next  Buddha.  Even  colporteurs  are 
treated  as  messengers  of  the  Messiah,  offerings  of  food,  flow- 
ers and  wax  tapers  being  made  to  them  and  they  being  expected 
in  turn  to  bless  the  worshipers.  Yet  the  tradition  is  likewise 
a  disadvantage.  The  reign  of  the  predicted  Messiah  is  ex- 
pected to  usher  in  great  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  blessings. 
"  What  more  natural,  then,  than  that  the  early  converts,  not  to 
say  the  later  ones,  should  expect  great  worldly  prosperity  by 
becoming  Christians  ? "  None  of  the  missionaries  use  this 
tradition  to  further  their  cause,  but  rather  as  a  starting  point 
from  which  to  reason  in  doing  away  with  this  untruth.  Yet 
it  aids  the  work  in  spite  of  denial,  just  as  the  first  convert  and 
foremost  worker,  Nan  Tah,  a  prominent  Buddhist  priest,  was 
won  at  first  by  the  missionary's  announcement  in  advance  of 
a  coming  eclipse. 

2.  The  methods  employed  are  the  usual  ones,  though  evan- 
gelistic effort  is  more  extensive  than  in  some  fields,  reaching 
northward  as  far  as  the  southwestern  province  of  China,  west- 
ward into  Burma  and  eastward  into  the  domain  of  France. 
So  much  objection  has  been  made  by  the  French  officials  to 
the  presence  of  American  missionaries  within  their  territory, 
that  the  Laos  Christians  have  now  undertaken  the  work  in 
that  direction.  The  press  is  an  agency  of  great  usefulness,  and 
medicine  is  a  very  fruitful  means  of  spiritual  as  well  as  of 
bodily  blessing.  In  the  training  of  Christians,  the  ideas  of 
the  late  Dr.  Nevius  are  found  very  useful.  His  plan  of  having 
all  the  Christians  learning  and  applying  the  Scriptures  and  at 
the  same  time  teaching  others  is  being  followed  with  great 
profit  and  delight. 

3.  Self-support  and  independence  in  other  matters  are  just 
now  the  leading  features  of  Laos  missions ;  and  here  again 
much  is  due  to  Dr.  Nevius,  whose  views  have  been  largely  ac- 
cepted by  the  younger  men.  How  this  movement  is  progres- 
sing is  indicated  in  a  recent  article  by  Mr.  Dodd,  who  has  just 
been  quoted :    "  In  the  past  five  years  day-schools  have  been 


SIAM,    LAOS,    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS  317 

established  in  all  of  the  five  stations,  —  several  in  some  sta- 
tions, —  all  of  these  schools  being  taught  by  Laos  and  patro- 
nized and  supported  by  Laos.  In  the  youngest  station,  Cheung 
Hai,  last  year  there  was  manifested  such  a  desire  to  cut  loose 
from  the  traditional  dependence  upon  the  missionary  that  the 
time  seemed  ripe  for  turning  the  management  of  the  school 
over  wholly  to  the  church.  They  elected  a  board  of  control, 
the  chairman  a  missionary,  but  the  members  all  Laos  except 
one.  The  increased  ease  of  maintaining  the  school  and  de- 
fraying its  expenses  has  seemed  to  justify  the  step. 

"  This  same  church  is  now  building  a  good  brick  house  of 
worship  on  a  native  plan  and  with  contributions  made  wholly 
on  the  field,  instead  of  building  an  expensive  church  of  for- 
eign style,  largely  with  American  money,  as  is  often  done  on 
foreign  fields.  More  than  one  Laos  church  has  its  member- 
ship divided  into  sections,  each  section  in  turn  doing  evan- 
gelistic work  in  the  vicinage  on  Sundays.  Several  of  the 
churches,  in  addition  to  this,  support  their  own  evangelists  to 
the  heathen  of  their  own  parish.  These  evangelists  are  under 
the  direction  of  the  church  sessions,  not  of  the  missionaries 
alone.  And  two  churches  together  support  a  Laos  minister  in 
a  new  and  weak  parish.  For  two  years  all  the  churches  have 
supported  evangelists  from  Siamo-Laos  territory  into  French- 
Laos  on  the  East  and  British-Laos  on  the  North. 

"  Last  year  the  attendance  on  the  sessions  of  the  Mission's 
Training  School  for  Christian  Workers  was  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  equal  to  what  it  had  been  in  the  palmy  days  when  every 
evangelistic  worker  had  before  him  the  prospect  of  steady  em- 
ployment by  foreign  funds.  This  year  two  teak  timber  work- 
ers, one  a  Siamese  Christian,  the  other  a  Laos  elder,  have  of- 
fered to  furnish  the  whole  support  of  a  native  minister  among 
their  foresters.  This  is  the  latest  and  most  striking  instance 
yet  shown  of  purely  native  initiative  in  Christian  work  among 
the  Laos." 

The  plan  adopted  a  few  years  since  of  securing  self-support 
by  settling  farmer  pastors  over  native  churches  is  somewhat 


3l8  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

unique.  The  church  is  required  to  furnish  a  rice-field  and 
give  the  pastor  some  aid  in  working  it.  He  has  his  expenses 
paid  to  his  parish  and  then  his  salary  is  reduced  in  a  decreasing 
ratio  for  four  or  five  years,  the  period  during  which  he  obli- 
gates himself  to  serve  the  parish.  His  work  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  local  church,  thus  relieving  the  mission  of 
the  friction  likely  to  arise  from  direct  business  relations  with 
the  pastor.  As  the  church  controls  the  matter,  it  fosters  inde- 
pendence in  a  marked  degree. 

4.  That  this  varied  work  has  gained  for  the  missionaries 
great  influence  in  the  country  is  but  natural.  Not  only  does 
it  appeal  to  the  Christian,  but  it  commends  itself  equally  to  the 
business  man  and  student  of  national  progress.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising that  an  English  traveler  who  journeyed  through  Burma 
and  the  Laos  country  in  the  interest  of  railroads,  Mr.  Hallett, 
should  have  dedicated  his  volume,  "  A  Thousand  Miles  on  an 
Elephant,"  to  the  American  missionaries  in  Burma,  Siam  and 
Laos,  doing  it,  he  says,  "  as  a  mark  of  the  high  esteem  in  which 
I  hold  the  noble  work  the  American  Baptist  Mission  and  the 
American  Presbyterian  Mission  are  accomplishing  in  civilizing 
and  Christianizing  the  people  of  Indo-China."  In  the  book 
itself  is  this  paragraph,  which  is  quoted  by  Mr.  Speer :  "  Noth- 
ing struck  me  more  during  my  journeys  than  the  high  es- 
timation in  which  the  American  missionaries  were  held  by 
the  chiefs.  Not  only  were  they  on  friendly  and  kindly  footing 
with  them,  but  by  their  bold  strictures  upon  acts  of  injustice, 
and  by  exposing  and  expostulating  against  the  wickedness  and 
senselessness  of  certain  reigning  superstitions,  they  had  be- 
come a  beneficent  power  in  the  country." 


XIII 
BURMA  AND  CEYLON 

PART  I.  — GENERAL 

These  two  countries,  one  the  most  extensive  province  of  the 
Indian  Empire,  the  other  Britain's  principal  Crown  Colony,  are 
treated  together  for  the  reason  that  both  are  prominent  Bud- 
dhist lands,  and  also  because  missionary  operations  in  these 
countries  present  some  features  that  deserve  fuller  notice  than 
would  be  possible  if  they  were  discussed  in  the  same  chapter 
with  India  proper. 

I.  Burma.  —  i.  The  Country.  —  (i)  This  province  ex- 
tends from  the  mountains  of  Tibet  southward  to  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  a  distance  of  some  i,ioo  miles,  with  a  width  from 
the  Chinese  border  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal  of  700  miles.  The  old 
province  of  Lower  Burma  occupies  more  than  one-third  of  the 
entire  estimated  area  of  288,000  square  miles.  Upper  Burma, 
annexed  to  the  Indian  Empire  in  1886,  is  somewhat  smaller; 
and  the  Upper  Burman  and  Lower  Burman  tracts,  which  have 
not  yet  been  incorporated  into  British  India,  constitute  the  re- 
mainder. 

(2)  Appearance  of  the  Country  and  Its  Products.  —  The 
level  cultivable  plains,  which  are  about  as  extensive  as  Eng- 
land and  a  little  larger  than  New  York  State,  are  intersected 
by  a  network  of  creeks  which  render  it  an  ideal  agricultural 
country  like  Bengal.  During  the  floods  tens  of  thousands  of 
native  boats  are  busy  carrying  cargoes  along  these  highways. 
At  this  season  the  Irawadi  sometimes  overflows  the  country 
for  a  distance  of  ten  or  fifteen  miles  on  either  side  to  a  depth 
319 


320  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  from  four  to  fourteen  feet.  The  inundated  villages  suffer 
very  little,  however,  as  the  houses  are  built  on  piles  and  the 
waters  rise  slowly. 

A  description  of  a  city  intimately  connected  with  mission 
history  will  give  the  reader  some  conception  of  Burmese  scen- 
ery at  its  best.  Shway  Yoe  —  James  George  Scott  —  writes 
of  Maulmain  as  follows :  "  It  is  situated  on  the  slopes  of  a 
series  of  hills.  Each  of  these  is  surmounted  by  its  pagoda, 
some  glittering  bright  with  gold  leaf  or  brilliantly  white  in  the 
sunlight,  others  crumbling  away  into  decay  and  covered  with 
moss  and  grass  and  shrub  growth ;  while  beside  these  are  the 
striking  outlines  of  the  various  monastic  buildings  richly  or- 
namented with  carved  work,  gilding  and  bright  color,  and  sur- 
rounded by  masses  of  well-foliaged  trees.  Altogether  the 
town  is  one  of  the  prettiest  in  the  East,  and  the  river  from 
the  central  ridge  is  certainly  without  its  equal  in  Burma.  The 
town  clings  to  the  water's  edge,  and  is  surrounded  by  ex- 
tensive growths  of  every  shade  from  the  sombre  green  of  the 
mango  and  the  mangosteen  to  the  light  tints  of  the  pagoda 
tree,  interspersed  with  feathery  clumps  of  bamboo  and  the 
gorgeous  drooping  plumes  of  the  Amherstia  nobilis.  Beyond, 
green  islands  are  set  in  a  silvery  expanse  of  water,  their  out- 
lines broken  by  the  graceful  shape  of  the  pagoda  spire  with 
its  tinkling  bells.  Farther  off,  dark  hills  contrast  with  the 
silvery  lines  of  the  winding  rivers  and  the  ruddy  gold  or  tender 
green  of  the  rice  fields ;  and  away  to  the  north  rise  abruptly 
from  the  plain  fantastic  needled  peaks,  honeycombed  through 
and  through  with  caves,  most  of  them  rendered  sacred  by 
images  of  the  Buddha." 

The  remainder  of  the  country,  consisting  of  hills  and  moun- 
tains, is  covered  for  the  most  part  with  forests  of  useful  and 
ornamental  trees,  the  most  valuable  of  which  is  the  teak. 
Some  of  these  have  a  girth  of  twenty-five  feet  and  rise  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  before  the  first  branch  is  reached, 
while  the  giant  bamboo  attains  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet. 
"  Orchids,   ferns   and  mosses  of  great  beauty  are   found  in 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  321 

abundance.  Ground  flowers  are  comparatively  few ;  but 
a  Burma  forest,  and  particularly  in  the  month  of  March,  is 
quite  bright  with  the  many  colors  and  sweet  with  the  varying 
scents  of  thousands  of  flowering  trees,  flowering  creepers, 
flowering  shrubs  and  orchids." 

Cleared  portions  of  the  upland  and  hill  regions  are  connected 
by  tracks  where  the  jungle  has  been  cut  away.  These  so- 
called  roads  are  pulverized  into  dust  by  the  slab  wheels  of 
bullock  carts  in  the  dry  season,  or  are  churned  into  a  quagmire 
by  animals  after  the  rain  has  come.  The  tea  plant,  wheat, 
maize  and  cotton  thrive  here  as  rice  does  on  the  plains. 

(3)  Its  Fauna. — Elephants,  rhinoceroses,  tigers  and  buf- 
faloes run  wild  in  the  unsettled  districts,  where  also  are  found 
pythons,  cobras  and  the  rarer  but  deadliest  of  eastern  snakes, 
the  hamadryad.  The  birds  of  Burma  are  varied  and  most 
brilliant,  particularly  the  peacock  and  different  varieties  of  the 
pheasant.  A  large  share  of  the  food  of  the  Burmese  comes 
from  the  waters  and  includes  everything  —  except  the  alli- 
gator —  from  the  shark  to  the  sea  slug.  Domesticated  an- 
imals are  the  ox,  buffalo,  horse  and  a  few  elephants. 

(4)  Intercommunication.  —  Though  the  Irawadi,  constitut- 
ing a  great  artery  of  travel,  is  provided  with  steamers,  and 
while  at  the  beginning  of  1898  some  887  miles  of  railway  were 
opened  to  traffic,  "  the  existence  of  numerous  extensive 
swamps  in  the  more  level  tracts  of  the  interior  and  the  defec- 
tiveness of  the  communications  "  coupled  with  the  mountainous 
character  of  much  of  the  country,  make  intercommunication 
inconvenient.  These  facts  and  the  incursions  of  robber  bands 
largely  account  for  the  sparsity  of  population.  In  recent 
years,  however,  this  is  increasing  and  immigrants  from  India 
have  come  in.  Moreover,  since  the  Government  has  become 
stable  under  British  occupation.  Lower  Burma  has  been  much 
like  other  countries  newly  opened  for  colonization. 

2.  Climate,  Rainfall  and  Health.  —  These  vary  with  the  lo- 
cation. At  points  on  the  coast  the  annual  rainfall  is  over  six- 
teen feet,  though  as  one  goes  inland  it  decreases,  except  in  the 


322  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Shan  States  where  it  is  again  heavier.  The  rainy  season  along 
the  coast  lasts  about  half  the  year.  In  the  littoral  regions, 
though  it  is  moist,  the  heat  is  not  excessive.  As  one  journeys 
toward  the  interior  the  temperature  is  more  comfortable,  and 
for  three  months  in  winter  is  quite  cool.  Yet  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  Occidentals  find  the  climate  more  trying  here  than 
on  the  plains  of  India.  Prevalent  diseases  of  foreigners  in 
British  Burma  are  fever,  dysentery  and  hepatic  complaints. 
The  climate  on  the  whole,  however,  is  better  for  health  than 
that  of  any  part  of  India,  and  British  troops  show  a  very  low 
rate  of  disease  and  mortality. 

3.  The  People. —  (i)  Number  and  Races.  —  The  popula- 
tion in  1891  was  for  Upper  Burma  2,946,933,  while  in  Lower 
Burma  there  were  4,658,627,  a  total  of  7,605,560.  To  this 
may  be  added  116,493,  the  number  of  persons  estimated  to 
occupy  border  tracts  not  yet  fully  incorporated  into  British 
India.  The  Burmans  proper  constitute  the  bulk  of  this  pop- 
ulation; next  in  number  come  the  Shans,  who  are  followed 
by  the  Karens,  and  they  by  other  hill  tribes  and  immigrants 
from  China,  India  and  the  West.  In  all  there  are  said  to  be 
forty-two  races  in  Burma. 

(2)  The  Burmese  "are  a  short-statured,  thick-set  people; 
they  wear  long  hair  on  their  heads,  but  have  little  hair  on  their 
faces.  They  are  flat-featured  and  nearer  the  Chinese  than  the 
Aryan  type.  They  are  excitable  and  impulsive,  fond  of  shows 
of  all  kinds ;  and  up  to  a  certain  point  courageous.  They  are 
callous  to  suffering  in  others  and  ready  to  commit  crimes  of 
violence."  Mr.  Scott  adds :  "  They  are  most  marvelously  and 
inconceivably  lazy.  Energetic  people  declare  that  a  Burman  is 
good  at  nothing  but  steering  a  boat  or  driving  a  bullock  cart. 
In  Burma  no  one  can  starve  and  there  is  not  a  beggar  to  be 
seen,  except  the  poor  lepers  on  the  pagoda  steps.  The  or- 
dinary Burman  takes  a  job  at  carpentry  work  or  in  the  harvest 
field  to  get  a  little  money,  and  then  he  does  nothing  till  he  has 
got  rid  of  it  all.  So  he  jogs  on  through  a  calm  and  contented 
existence,  the  most  cheerful  of  mortals,  troubled  by  no  cares 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  323 

and  free  from  all  the  temptations  of  ambition."  The  men  al- 
most universally  are  tatooed  from  the  waist  to  the  knee.  Their 
ivoineti  probably  enjoy  more  freedom  than  those  of  any  Asiatic 
nation,  and  when  married  are  said  to  be  more  independent  in 
financial  matters  than  women  of  European  countries.  They 
are  allowed  to  manage  their  own  matrimonial  affairs  after  a 
period  of  courting;  when  married,  usually  attend  to  business 
matters  or  advise  their  husbands  in  so  doing;  and  can  pro- 
cure divorce  for  good  cause.  Almost  from  infancy,  women 
as  well  as  men  smoke  immense  cigars  and  they  may  carry  a 
half-smoked  one  in  their  earrings,  or  rather  bell-mouthed  ear 
tubes.  Polygamy  is  rare.  Both  men  and  women  are  well 
dressed  and  delight  in  gay  colors  and  in  silk  attire.  All  big 
and  little  of  both  sexes  carry  umbrellas. 

(3)  The  Shans,  who  are  practically  the  same  as  the  Lao- 
tians of  Siam,  do  not  differ  much  from  the  Burmans,  "  but 
being  highlanders  are  poorer,  hardier  and  more  courageous. 
They  have  a  remarkable  turn  for  trading  of  all  kinds." 

(4)  The  Karens,  who  were  obliged  under  their  cruel  masters 
to  live  in  the  mountains  have,  under  British  rule  come  into  the 
lowlands  to  some  extent  and  dwell  mostly  in  Central  and  Low- 
er Burma  between  the  Irawadi  and  Menam  rivers.  They  are 
divided  into  many  tribes,  the  chief  of  which  are  "  the  Sgaus, 
the  most  numerous ;  the  Pwos,  the  most  Burmanized  and 
sturdy ;  the  Bghais,  the  most  fierce  and  warlike."  They  are 
said  to  be  more  persevering  and  methodical  than  the  Burmans 
and  have  been  remarkably  open  to  the  teachings  of  mission- 
aries. 

(5)  Without  describing  other  races,  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  Chinese  of  whom  the  Burman  authority  already  quoted, 
Mr.  Scott,  says :  "  It  seems  almost  certain  that  in  no  very  long 
time  Burma,  or,  at  any  rate,  the  large  trading  towns  of  Burma 
will  be  for  all  practical  purposes  absorbed  by  the  Chinese  trad- 
ers, just  as  Singapore  and  Penang  are  virtually  Chinese 
towns."  They  unwearyingly  plod  on,  entering  the  British 
firms  in  preference  to  Burmans,  whose  pride  causes  them  to 


324  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

take  offense  easily,  and  always  gaining  from  their  employers 
hints  and  instructions  which  are  afterward  utilized  in  a  busi- 
ness of  their  own.  They  own  all  the  large  stores  except  the 
European  ones. 

4.  Burman  Religion. —  (i)  Though  the  census  of  1891 
shows  that  among  every  one  hundred  Burmese  there  were 
three  Mohammedans,  two  each  of  Hindus  and  Animists,  and 
one  Christian  —  less  numerous  sects  are  disregarded  in  this 
statement  —  Buddhism,  of  the  southern  type  described  under 
Siam,  constitutes  the  religion  of  ninety-two  per  cent,  of  the 
people.  A  few  features  peculiar  to  Burma  may  be  noted  here. 
It  is  said  to  exist  in  greater  purity  in  this  country  than  in  any 
other  with  the  possible  exception  of  Ceylon. 

(2)  Every  male  Burman  at  some  time  in  his  life  must  re- 
side in  a  monastery,  shave  his  head,  wear  the  yellow  robe  and, 
renouncing  the  world,  "  go  at  least  once  around  the  village 
with  a  begging-bowl  hung  around  his  neck  with  the  regular 
members  of  the  monastery."  The  entry  into  this  monastery 
is  the  most  important  event  in  a  Burman's  experience  and  in- 
fluences the  entire  populace.  Naturally,  therefore,  men  are 
friendly  to  the  religion  after  they  have  doffed  the  monastic 
habit.  While  foreigners  have  enjoyed  religious  toleration,  one 
of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  missions  in  early  times  was 
that  Burmese  rulers  regarded  the  adoption  of  Christianity  as 
an  interference  with  their  allegiance. 

(3)  The  fully  initiated  monks,  who  number  over  20,000,  are 
the  most  respected  class  in  the  community.  They  observe  their 
vows  of  celibacy  and  poverty  somewhat  closely,  and  as  every- 
where except  in  China  and  Japan,  they  are  the  educators  of 
the  young.  It  is  due  to  their  influence  that  long  before  mis- 
sionaries and  the  English  established  schools,  "  every  Burman 
boy  was  taught  to  read  and  write."  All  boys  go  to  these  mo- 
nastic schools ;  for  "  in  democratic  Burma  none  pay  for  educa- 
tion and  all  are  treated  alike."  Their  studies,  though  inclusive 
of  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic,  are  mainly  ecclesiastical, 
Buddhist  books  being  used.     "  Fluency  of  speech  and  great 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  325 

skill  in  carrying  on  an  argument  according  to  their  own  sys- 
tem of  dialectics  are  the  common  possession  of  the  educated 
Burmese,  and  an  unshaken  conviction  in  the  truth  of  their  re- 
ligion is  almost  universal."  Girls  are  not  admitted  to  the  mo- 
nastic schools,  but  special  instruction  for  them  is  gradually  be- 
ing introduced,  and  they  now  constitute  about  ten  per  cent,  of 
those  taught. 

II.  Ceylon.  —  i.  The  Land. —  (i)  This  pear-shaped 
"  Pearl  of  the  Eastern  Seas  "  is  England's  principal  Crown 
Colony.  The  name  is  misleading,  however,  since  the  colonists 
from  the  Occident  are  only  a  drop  in  the  bucket  compared 
with  the  native  population,  and  this  will  always  be  the  case. 
It  is  called  a  colony  because  it  has  no  responsible  representa- 
tive government  of  its  own,  being  administered  directly  under 
the  Crown.  While  the  benefits  derived  from  this  connection 
with  Great  Britain  are  manifest,  it  is  likewise  true,  as  the  late 
Judge  of  the  Ceylon  Supreme  Court,  L.  B.  Clarence,  has  writ- 
ten :  "  No  doubt  many  material  advantages  are  now  enjoyed 
by  the  people  —  the  roads,  the  hospitals,  the  education  and  a 
host  of  other  things ;  yet  we  have  not  sufficiently  adapted  our 
law,  substantive  law  as  well  as  procedure,  to  the  conditions  of 
the  native  community.  Three  serious  evils  have  grown  up 
under  our  rule  —  drink,  gambling  and  the  disastrous  passion 
for  mischievous  and  fraudulent  litigation.  Our  law  fails. to  ef- 
fect justice.  The  judiciary  is  pure  and  fearless,  but  the  ma- 
chinery is  defective  and  not  sufficiently  accessible  to  the  peo- 
ple. It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  under  our  rule  a  new  horror 
has  come  into  existence  armed  with  fangs  derived  from  the 
very  strength  of  our  executive  authority  and  the  weakness  of 
the  demonstration  of  justice.  No  native,  however  blameless 
may  be  his  life,  is  safe  from  the  success  of  a  false  and  malicious 
accusation." 

(2)  The  physical  features  of  this  island,  —  which  is  a  trifle 
larger  than  West  Virginia,  or  about  four-fifths  the  size  of 
Ireland,  —  remind  one  of  the  conformation  found  in  Formosa. 
Undulating  plains  cover  four-fifths  of  the  island  and  the  re- 


326  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

maining  section  is  occupied  by  the  mountains  of  the  central- 
south.  This  mountain  roof,  several  thousand  feet  high,  di- 
vides it  into  different  districts,  varying  according  to  the  rain- 
fall. Some  parts  are  dry,  and  there  one  finds  scorching  sand 
and  thorny  scrub.  In  other  sections  where  nearly  seventeen 
feet  of  rain  fall  yearly  everything  is  "  green  and  leafy,  moist 
and  steamy.  You  may  have  ten  inches  of  rain- fall  in  one 
night.  These  moist  parts  of  the  country  are  trying  to  an 
English  constitution.  You  feel  as  if  you  were  in  a  perpetual 
poultice.  Moreover,  mosquitoes  swarm  by  night,  and  the 
grass  and  bushes  are  full  of  leeches  which  crawl  up  your  legs 
in  scores."  About  five-sixths  of  the  total  area  is  uncultivated, 
and  hence  largely  overgrown  with  forests.  Owing  to  a  care- 
less system  of  burning  down  the  trees  to  secure  arable  land, 
these  fields  being  soon  abandoned  for  new  forest  stretches, 
the  island  has  been  very  seriously  impoverished ;  though  the 
present  forestry  department  is  remedying  this  defect.  A 
singular  feature  found  in  some  parts  of  the  island  is  the  enor- 
mous surfaces  of  bare  scorching  rock,  a  mile  or  more  in  length 
or  width,  starting  abruptly  from  the  plain  and  towering  hun- 
dreds of  feet  above  the  trees  below.  In  the  old  days  some 
of  these  were  hewn  into  fortresses,  or  converted  into  gloomy 
temples.  The  northern  part  of  the  country  is  variegated  by 
dry,  ired  plains,  dotted  over  with  groves  of  dark  Palmyra 
palms,  straight  and  stiff,  or  by  the  cocoanut  palm  which  twists 
and  leans  about  and  always  marks  the  nearness  of  a  human 
dwelling.  The  Singhalese  have  a  proverb  that  it  will  not 
grow  out  of  hearing  of  the  human  voice.  In  another  section 
one  comes  upon  deep,  shady  forests  bound  together  by  great 
cables  of  creeping  plants  which  form  the  play-ground  of  in- 
numerable monkeys.  In  the  hills  the  scenery  is  grand  indeed. 
Rocks  and  cliffs  and  waterfalls,  shaggy  forests  clothing  the 
steep  heights,  and  grassy  slopes  where  great  rhododendron 
trees  grow  are  its  striking  features. 

(3)  Where  cultivated  land  appears,  a  characteristic  differen- 
tiating Ceylon  from  the  adjacent  mainland  is  evident.     Many 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  327 

extensive  paddy  fields  rise  up  the  steep  mountainside  in  suc- 
cessive terraces,  as  in  Japan.  Other  great  sections  are  occu- 
pied by  the  tea  shrub,  which  marks  the  grave  of  much  British 
money  expended  on  preceding  plantations  of  coffee  trees  and 
cinchona,  both  of  which  fell  victim  to  disease.  This  plantation 
system  has  made  the  country  a  very  interesting  and  profitable 
one,  now  that  tea  has  taken  the  place  of  coffee.  Travelers 
are  much  interested  in  the  clever  manner  in  which  the  natives 
clear  the  land  for  these  great  plantations.  Beginning  at  the 
bottom  of  the  steep  mountain,  they  cut  the  trees  half  way 
through  until  they  reach  the  upper  section  of  the  clearing. 
They  then  chop  down  a  few  of  the  uppermost  trees  in  such  a 
way  that  they  fall  upon  and  fell  those  below  them,  and  these  in 
turn  crash  down  upon  those  beneath. 

(4)  Mr.  Shand  says  of  the  climate:  "  Ceylon  has  a  great  ad- 
vantage over  the  mainland  of  India,  and  as  an  island  enjoys  a 
more  equable  temperature.  The  average  for  the  year  in 
Colombo  is  80°  in  ordinary  seasons.  April  is  the  hottest 
month,  and  in  May  the  southwest  monsoon  commences  amid  a 
deluge  of  rain.  The  beautiful  tableland  of  Nuwara-Eliya  is 
now  used  as  a  sanatorium.  Here  the  thermometer  in  the  shade 
never  rises  above  70°,  while  the  average  is  62°."  Jaffna  and 
other  sections  of  the  North  have  less  rain  and  consequently  de- 
pend upon  irrigation. 

2.  The  Inhabitants.  —  ( i )  They  are  roughly  divided  into 
two  classes.  The  Singhalese  constitute  about  two-thirds  of 
the  population  and  occupy  the  southern  and  south-central  sec- 
tions, while  the  remaining  third,  the  Tamils,  inhabit  the 
northern  portion  of  Ceylon.  Some  250,000  Moormen,  a  race 
of  mixed  Arab  and  Indian  blood,  are  scattered  about  through 
the  island.  "  They  are  indefatigable  traders  —  the  Jews  one 
may  say  of  the  island.  The  Moorman's  shop  is  in  every  vil- 
lage; and  in  his  smart  jacket  and  high  cap  of  gaudy  colours, 
marvelously  adhering  to  his  shaven  skull,  with  his  assortment 
of  gems  and  curiosities,  he  is  the  first  to  greet  the  visitor  on 
arrival."     The  inhabitants  of  Ceylon,  especially  the  Tamils,  do 


328  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

not  differ  greatly  from  their  brothers  in  India,  though  they 
are  more  addicted  to  Htigation.  Tamils  are  more  deliberate 
and  notorious  offenders  than  the  Singhalese  in  this  latter 
respect. 

(2)  The  missionary  is  amused,  until  the  novelty  disappears, 
by  certain  peculiarities  of  their  speech;  thus,  a  Singhalese  will 
indicate  the  distance  of  his  neighbor's  house  by  saying  that 
"  it  is  within  a  talk,"  "  within  a  loud  talk,"  or  "within  a  hoo- 
call."  Like  the  Chinese  they  will  indicate  time  by  pointing  to 
a  section  in  the  heavens,  stating  that  "  the  sun  was  so  high," 
or  else  they  may  say,  "  it  was  about  the  time  priests  eat  "(11 
A.  M.)  ;  or  "  it  was  about  the  time  when  bees  play  "  (4  p.  m.)  ; 
or  "  the  time  when  parrots  fly  home  to  roost  "  (5  p.m.).  The 
•  people,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  ports,  are  nat- 
urally very  cosmopolitan,  since  Ceylon  is  the  great  crossing 
place  of  the  nations  in  southeastern  Asia,  some  7,000,000  tons 
of  shipping  clearing  annually  from  Colombo. 

3.  Religion  and  Education.  —  ( i )  Prevalent  Faiths.  — 
Of  the  population  which  numbered  in  1891  about  3,000,000  in 
all, 877,043  were  entered  as  Buddhists,  615,932  as  Hindus,  and 
211,995  were  Mohammedans.  The  number  of  Christians  at 
that  time  was  reported  as  302,127;  other  religious  creeds  hav- 
ing a  smaller  number  of  adherents  are  not  given.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  a  little  over  ten  per  cent,  of  the  population  was 
nominally  Christian.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
this  number  includes  a  large  proportion  who  have  descended 
from  the  nominally  Protestant  and  Catholic  Christians  of  early 
days,  the  Dutch  having  been  extremely  superficial  in  their 
method  of  admitting  the  natives  to  church  membership;  as  it 
was  the  stepping-stone  to  many  positions  of  importance  during 
their  rule,  and  also  a  practical  requirement  for  the  full  priv- 
ileges of  citizenship. 

Ceylon's  place  in  the  history  of  Buddhism  was  a  most  im- 
portant one;  since  in  the  days  of  Asoka  it  was  a  great  mis- 
sionary field,  where  a  propaganda  was  carried  on  by  his  own 
son  and  daughter  which  left  the  island  Buddhistic  in  faith. 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  329 

The  religion  is  that  of  the  original  southern  system ;  and  with 
Burma  and  Siam,  Ceylon  ranks  as  a  professor  of  the  original 
tenets  of  Buddha.  Singhalese  Buddhism,  however,  is  less 
pure  than  in  those  lands  and  has  been  considered  a  proper 
field  of  labor  for  Burman  reformers.  The  presence  of  Hindu 
deities  and  the  permission  of  caste  in  a  modified  form  are 
the  leading  lapses  that  are  deplored  by  orthodox  believers. 
At  Kandy  is  preserved  one  of  the  most  famous  relics  of  all 
Buddhadom,  the  well-known  though  spurious  tooth  of  Gau- 
tama. 

Adam's  Peak,  a  most  striking  and  beautiful  mountain, 
though  by  no  means  the  loftiest  on  the  island,  has  for  more 
than  1,500  years  been  a  great  resort  for  pilgrims  who  flock 
to  its  summit  "  because  they  believe  that  there  on  the  very 
topmost  crag  Gautama  Buddha,  the  founder  of  the  Buddhist 
religion,  left  his  footprint  2,400  years  ago.  In  the  dry  sea- 
son thousands  of  pilgrims  —  men,  women  and  children  —  toil 
up  the  steep  and  reach  the  little  shrine  at  the  top  which 
covers  the  supposed  footprint.  They  make  their  little  offer- 
ings before  it  and  sprinkle  sweet-scented  flowers  and  then  the 
children  kneel  at  the  holy  spot  and  receive  their  parents'  bless- 
ing. There  is  an  awful  majesty  about  this  lone  rock  up- 
lifted in  the  clear  air,  high  above  the  mountain  wall.  To  the 
Singhalese  the  place  is  Sri-pada  —  the  Holy  Footprint ;  to  the 
Tamils  it  is  the  Sivanolipathei  —  the  Worshipful  Footmark 
of  their  God  Siva.  The  Mohammedans  associate  it  with 
Adam,"  saying  that  when  expelled  from  Eden  he  found  in  Cey- 
lon a  second  Paradise.  Except  in  their  intensity,  perhaps,  the 
leading  religions  do  not  differ  from  those  described  in  con- 
nection with  India,  Burma  and  Siam. 

(2)  In  the  matter  of  education  the  island  is  worthy  of  spe- 
cial note.  It  has  taken  remarkable  forward  strides  since  it  was 
organized  under  a  separate  government  department  with  a  di- 
rector of  public  instruction  and  a  corps  of  inspectors.  In  1896  a 
little  more  than  one-seventeenth  of  the  population  was  receiv- 
ing regular  instruction.     Vernacular  education  is  chiefly  cul- 


33°  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tivated  by  the  Government,  while  EngHsh  instruction  is  so  de- 
sired that  it  is  becoming  gradually  self-supporting.  Promis- 
ing students  are  encouraged  by  the  offer  of  scholarships  of 
fi5o  a  year  for  four  years,  which  enable  them  to  study  in  an 
English  university.  An  agricultural  school  and  more  than 
twenty  industrial  schools  and  orphanages  are  also  helpful  in 
promoting  the  intelligence  of  the  islanders,  while  a  technical 
college  is  likewise  in  operation. 


PART   II. —  MISSIONARY 

I.  Missions  in  Burma.  —  There  are  the  following  mis- 
sionary organizations  laboring  in  this  land :  From  the  United 
States,  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  and  the  Meth- 
odist Board,  North ;  from  Great  Brit-ain,  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  the  Wesleyans,  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  National  Council  of  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Associations,  the  Mission  to  Lepers  and  the 
Missionary  Pence  Association ;  from  Germany  the  Leipzig 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Missionary  Society ;  the  International 
China  Inland  Mission  laboring  at  Bhamo,  near  the  Chinese 
frontier;  and  the  World's  Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation at  Rangoon.  A  glance  at  some  of  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  four  largest  societies  is  all  that  will  here  be  at- 
tempted. 

I.  The  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  is  by  far  the 
most  important  of  these,  as  it  was  the  first  to  enter  the  field  in 
any  force ;  though  Felix  Carey  preceded  Judson  by  six  years, 
having  arrived  in  Rangoon  in  1807.  Broadly  speaking,  their 
work  varies  according  to  its  subjects,  being  most  successful 
among  the  Karens. 

( I )  The  Biirmans  were  the  first  to  be  cultivated  by  the  mis- 
sionaries. Though  the  ruling  race  and  by  far  the  most  numer- 
ous of  all  those  in  Burma,  few  converts  have  been  won  from 
that  nationality.     When  they  have  become  Christians,  they  are 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON 


33^ 


far  less  aggressive  in  propagating  their  new  faith  than  the 
Karens.  The  fact  that  they  are  Buddhists  and  comparatively 
well  educated  prevents  the  vast  majority  of  Burmans  from 
giving  a  fair  hearing  to  Christianity.  The  attempt  to  induce 
Karens  to  evangelize  their  high-born  neighbors  is  not  relished 
by  them  and  still  less  by  the  Burmans.  Yet  the  Church  is 
making  steady  gains  even  here,  usually  along  regular  lines, 
supplemented  by  the  splendid  work  of  the  Rangoon  press  and 
the  higher  educational  institutiops  of  the  mission. 

(2)  Missions  among  the  Karens,  which  began  in  Maulmein 
in  1827,  have  been  about  tenfold  as  fruitful  as  work  for  Bur- 
mans. While  the  Karens  are  supposed  to  be  hill-dwellers,  as 
many  are  now  found  on  the  plains  as  in  their  original  hill 
homes.  Dr.  Bunker,  a  worker  for  them  of  thirty-six  years' 
standing,  writes  that  the  marvelous  success  among  these  peo- 
ple cannot  be  understood  without  bearing  in  mind  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Karens  and  especially  their  traditions.  These  state 
that  they  came  originally  from  the  North,  "  across  the  river 
of  running  sand,"  —  possibly  the  desert  of  Gobi,  though  that 
is  not  certain.  Their  traditions  remind  one  strongly  of  the 
Old  Testament  account  of  the  creation,  of  the  temptation  and 
fall  and  of  the  flood.  They  claim  to  have  had  religious  books 
formerly,  which  were  lost  by  their  ancestors,  and  they  even 
retain  the  Hebrew  name  of  God.  Such  likenesses  are  un- 
doubtedly a  help  to  the  missionaries;  yet  their  less  bigoted 
character  and  low  forms  of  spirit  and  demon  worship  make 
them  hospitable  to  any  better  faith.  Thus  while  they  are 
being  won  in  large  numbers  to  Christianity,  Buddhism  and 
Catholicism  are  likewise  gaining  many  converts  from  their 
ranks. 

The  seal  and  aggressiveness  of  the  Karens  must  also  be 
taken  into  account.  Naturally  bold,  brave  and  trustworthy, 
the  enlightenment  and  power  imparted  by  Christianity  has 
made  them  "  fine  evangelists,  teachers,  preachers,  etc.,  when 
converted  and  educated,  having  a  natural  talent  for  that  work, 
aptitude  for  spiritual  truths,  and  being  faithful  unto  death  in 


332  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

a  remarkable  degree."  Quite  as  much  must  one  bear  in  mind 
the  special  emphasis  and  training  that  have  been  given  the 
Karen  Church  along  lines  of  self-support  and  independent 
propagation,  in  which  respects  they  rank  among  the  first  in  the 
mission  world.  The  early  controversies  in  this  mission,  chron- 
icled in  Mr.  Carpenter's  volumes  and  others  bearing  on  the 
topic,  have  resulted  in  measures  that  have  proven  their  value 
not  only  in  Burma,  but  elsewhere  as  well.  Widely  opened 
doors  and  few  workers  to  supervise  the  native  force  are  the 
striking  features  in  this  most  promising  field,  whose  inhab- 
itants are  increasing  more  rapidly  than  any  other  people  in 
Burma.  These  providential  conditions  constitute  a  strong  ap- 
peal when  coupled  with  the  words  of  one  of  the  Secretaries 
of  the  Union :  "  They  believe  in  one  God  who  is  good,  but 
who  has  Httle  to  do  with  the  world  at  present.  They  also  be- 
lieve in  spirits,  good  and  bad,  and  in  a  personal  devil  who 
is  the  author  of  all  the  evil  and  suffering  of  life.  This  devil 
and  the  evil  spirits  are  the  principal  objects  of  their  worship, 
as  they  think  thus  to  appease  them  and  so  avoid  the  harm  they 
might  inflict.  God  and  good  spirits  they  neither  fear  nor 
worship.  The  Red  Karens  are  said  to  believe  in  seven  worlds, 
three  above  and  three  below,  and  all  worse  than  this ;  so  that, 
in  dying,  they  expect  to  go  inevitably  to  a  worse  place  than 
they  leave.  They  also  have  a  system  of  meritorious  works; 
but  it  does  not  involve  much  sacrifice,  as  it  is  so  arranged  that 
those  things  they  wish  to  do  are  meritorious,  and  only  those 
they  do  not  care  for  are  sinful." 

(3)  Minor  Missions.  —  "  Although  the  principal  efforts  of 
Baptist  missions  in  Burma  have  been  exerted  among  the  Bur- 
mans  and  the  Karens,  missionary  operations  have  been  gradu- 
ally enlarged  so  as  to  reach  nearly  all  the  numerous  races  in 
that  country,  which  are  said  to  number  as  many  as  forty-seven. 
Separate  missions  are  maintained  among  all  of  the  principal 
races  which  are  important  enough  to  be  mentioned  by  name 
in  the  census  report  of  1891,  with  the  exception  of  the  Chi- 
nese.   The  numerous  minor  divisions  of  the  people  of  Burma 


BURMA   AND    CEYLON  333 

are  allied  to  one  or  another  of  these  principal  races  among 
whom  missions  are  maintained,  and  so  are  in  some  degree 
reached  by  the  gospel  of  Christ."  The  most  important  minor 
work  is  done  for  the  Shans,  Chins,  Kachins,  Taungthus,  Ta- 
kings, and  the  Telugu  and  Tamil  immigrants.  When  to  this 
wide  ministry  to  native  peoples,  is  added  the  service  which  is 
being  rendered  foreigners  resident  in  the  country,  the  debt  of 
Burma  to  this  society  is  manifestly  great. 

2.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  is  doing  a 
wide-reaching  work  in  this  province,  (i)  Being  formally  be- 
gun in  1859  at  Maulmein,  it  now  occupies  important  positions 
both  in  Upper  and  Lower  Burma.  St.  John's  College  at  Ran- 
goon has  been,  and  now  is,  the  most  important  institution  con- 
nected with  the  mission ;  and  with  its  former  head,  Dr.  Marks, 
it  has  been  a  large  factor  in  promoting  Christianity  in  Burma. 
In  this  college  Dr.  Marks  exerted  so  strong  an  influence  over 
students  of  fifteen  leading  Burman  races,  that  when  he  went 
to  distant  places,  his  old  students  would  receive  him  with  open 
arms.  As  government  officials  and  teachers  these  graduates 
have  been  a  leaven  for  good.  It  was  his  personal  hold  upon 
the  prince  that  led  to  the  mission  in  Upper  Burma,  where  the 
King  carried  on  for  four  years,  under  Dr.  Marks,  a  school  for 
1,000  boys.  The  King  also  built  a  church  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, only  permitting  Queen  Victoria  to  present  a  baptismal 
font.  While  he  subsequently  showed  his  insincerity  and  even 
expelled  Dr.  Marks  from  the  land,  the  seed  had  been  sown,  and 
to-day  the  work  there  is  proceeding.  The  beneficent  in- 
fluences coming  to  the  country  from  the  15,000  students  that 
have  studied  under  Dr.  Marks  are  of  incalculable  value. 
Hardly  less  stress  is  placed  upon  female  education,  and  the 
success  achieved  by  St.  Mary's  School  of  the  Ladies'  Associa- 
tion, is  very  notable.  About  one-third  as  many  girls  and 
young  women  are  under  instruction  as  are  found  in  institutions 
for  males. 

(2)  The  Society's  labors  among  the  i^ar^w.f,though  the  cause 
of   some    controversy,    have   been    extensive    and    successful. 


334  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Like  the  Baptists,  the  S.  P.  G.  clergymen  have  found  it  much 
easier  to  win  these  people  than  the  Burmans.  The  mission- 
aries are  looked  upon  by  them  as  the  predicted  "  white  sons  of 
God  "  who  were  to  bring  them  deliverance  and  their  long  lost 
Bible.  The  new  doctrine  is  received  gladly,  being  welcomed 
as  a  release  from  their  old  bondage,  and  as  in  some  sort  a  re- 
turn to  a  still  older  worship  of  a  supreme  and  loving  God, 
whom  their  traditions  have  not  permitted  them  to  forget. 

(3)  This  Society  also  has  on  its  heart  the  sad  conditions  of 
the  natives  oi  the  out\y'mg  Nicobar  and  Andaman  Islands.  The 
latter  group  has  been  described  as  an  earthly  paradise  and  its 
inhabitants  as  among  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  humanity. 
These  people,  seldom  exceeding  five  feet  in  height,  "  have  no 
form  of  worship  or  religious  rites  whatsoever;  though  they 
believe  in  a  Great  Being,  the  author  of  all  good,  and  in  multi- 
tudes of  evil  beings,  of  whom  the  chief  are  three  spirits  dwell- 
ing respectively  in  the  woods,  in  the  anthills  and  on  the  sea. 
The  Nicobar  islanders  do  not  even  have  a  name,  beyond  a  word 
signifying  "  up  there,"  for  the  dim  idea  of  a  divine  being  which 
they  possess.  They  believe  that  a  good  spirit  dwells  in  the 
moon,  as  they  distinctly  see  his  lineaments  in  it ;  but  no  wor- 
ship is  offered  to  him.  The  evil  spirits  are  said  to  be  the  souls 
of  father,  mother  and  other  near  relatives  who  loved  them 
dearly  in  life.  These  malignant  beings  are  constantly  in  mind ; 
"  much  of  the  time  and  thoughts  of  every  man,  woman  and 
child  are  devoted  to  conciliating  the  evil  one  and  disembodied 
spirits.  They  live  in  constant  dread  and  abject  terror  of  the 
unseen  world,  spending  their  little  fortune  and  being  kept  in 
poverty  by  the  bribes  they  offer  to  the  spirits  which  they  sup- 
pose to  be  ready  to  pounce  down  and  eat  the  life  out  of  them." 
In  1885  the  first  work  for  these  by  the  Society  was  initiated, 
and  something  has  been  done  spasmodically  since  then.  "  The 
plan  adopted  is  to  bring  relays  of  children  from  Car  Nico- 
bar, a  populous  island  on  the  north  of  the  group,  to  Port  Blair 
in  the  Andamans,  and  after  a  stay  of  a  few  months  in  the  or- 
phanage to  return  them  to  their  parents.     This  work  is  con- 


BURMA   AND    CEYLON  335 

ducted  by  a  catechist.  They  are  taught  to  repeat  over  and 
over  again  in  their  own  tongue  short  sentences  on  the  good- 
ness, love  and  holiness  of  God  and  His  mercy  and  loving  kind- 
ness in  the  gift  of  His  Son,  to  be  repeated  hereafter  in  many 
a  Nicobar  hut,  where  the  blood  of  pig  and  fowls  has  been 
sprinkled  for  fear  of  demons  —  sweet  sounds  strangely  min- 
gled with  the  weird,  excited  and  drunken  utterances  of  Men- 
loonas  —  head  devildoctors."  Thus  after  a  century  the  self- 
denying  work  which  brought  twenty-four  Moravians  to  the 
grave  is  being  again  taken  up. 

3.  Of  the  four  leading  societies,  the  Methodist  Board,  North, 
next  appeared  on  the  scene.  This  was  made  possible  by  the 
grant  of  money  in  1878  by  an  Illinois  Conference,  and  the 
consequent  sending  forth  of  a  missionary  and  his  wife.  This 
mission  was  begun  and  carried  on,  like  the  one  in  Malaysia, 
from  an  English  work  as  a  basis.  The  weakness  of  such  a 
plan  of  organizing  a  mission  lies  mainly  in  the  insufficient  sup- 
port furnished  to  carry  on  projects  hastily  inaugurated.  Thus 
the  present  Presiding  Elder  writes :  "  Prolonged  observation  on 
the  field  has  led  me  to  the  following  conclusions  :  ( i )  Wher- 
ever we  have  given  good  and  continuous  supervision,  the  work 
has  prospered.  Wherever  this  care  has  been  intermittent  or 
wanting,  a  hopeful  beginning  has  dwindled  into  an  actual  dis- 
appointment. (2)  If  reenforcements  are  surely  not  coming 
so  that  all  departments  of  our  work  can  be  cared  for,  the  ques- 
tion is  on  us  whether  we  are  to  close  up  such  fragmentary 
work  as  we  have  begun  and  confine  our  efforts  only  to  that 
which  we  can  immediately  direct.  I  am  not  in  favor  of  start- 
ing any  new  work  that  has  no  missionary  for  its  guide."  A 
number  of  their  enterprises  are  crippled  because  lack  of  funds 
permits  only  of  a  very  Hmited  development  of  wise  plans.  The 
beginning  made  in  industrial  missionary  effort  for  Eurasians 
and  Anglo-Indians  is  very  hopeful,  and  also  the  schools  for 
girls,  as  well  as  efforts  for  seamen. 

4.  The  English  Wesleyans  began  their  operations  in  Burma 
less  than  fifteen  years  ago.     Like  the  American  Methodists, 


2,3^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

they  do  some  work  for  the  EngUsh  in  their  Mandalay  station, 
though  their  principal  labors  are  expended  on  the  natives. 
Schools  during  the  week  and  on  Sunday  are  the  chief  means 
employed  to  win  the  people.  Another  most  important  enter- 
prise is  a  large  leper  asylum  at  Mandalay.  While  most  of  its 
115  inmates  enter  as  heathen,  scarcely  one  fails  to  yield  before 
the  claims  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  He  is  faithfully  taught  and  lived 
by  those  in  charge.  This  mission  is  rendering  a  still  more 
helpful  service  to  the  Church  and  community  through  its  Girls' 
Training  School,  likewise  at  Mandalay.  It  has  now  reached 
the  status  of  a  normal  training  institution,  the  first  of  the  kind 
in  Upper  Burma,  and  recognized  as  such  by  the  Department 
of  Public  Instruction.  This  school  is  invaluable  from  a  mission- 
ary standpoint ;  inasmuch  as  it  not  only  furnishes  teachers  of  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  for  use  in  mission  and  public  schools, 
but  it  also  affords  a  high  grade  of  young  women  with  an  hon- 
orable means  of  livelihood,  and  gives  them  an  influence  over 
the  non-Christian  community  that  is  unique. 

II.  Missions  in  Ceylon.  —  This  land,  so  famous  as  a 
propagator  of  the  Buddhist  faith  in  other  countries,  has  not 
responded  very  readily  to  the  work  of  Christian  missions  with- 
in her  own  borders.  The  vast  majority  —  probably  eighty-five 
per  cent.  —  of  those  whom  the  census  enumerates  as  Chris- 
tians are  Roman  Catholics,  the  descendants  of  vast  multitudes 
whom  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  practically  forced  to  become 
Christians.  At  the  present  time  they  are  comparatively  well 
instructed  in  their  religion,  and  so  central  is  Ceylon  that  the 
missionaries  in  charge  regard  it  as  one  of  the  keys  of  Asia. 
A  strong  body  of  Jesuit  educators  have  established  a  college 
here,  which  ranks  highest  in  the  island ;  though  there  are  Prot- 
estant institutions  of  a  very  high  grade. 

I.  The  societies  working  in  Ceylon  are  the  following:  The 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  and 
the  International  Department  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Associations  from  the  United  States ;  from  England,  the  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Society,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  337 

Gospel,  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land Zenana  Missionary  Society,  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society,  the  Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Association,  the 
World's  Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  the  Christian 
Literature  Society  for  India  and  the  Salvation  Army.  Of  these 
the  pioneers  were  the  Baptists,  who  entered  in  1806,  though  at 
present  they  are  not  represented  in  any  considerable  force.  A 
few  salient  features  of  the  work  of  the  four  leading  societies  are 
given  below ;  details  as  to  the  varied  activities  of  these  organiza- 
tions as  well  as  of  the  other  societies  may  be  found  in  Volume  II. 
2.  After  the  Baptists,  the  next  to  undertake  work  on  the 
island  were  the  Wesleyans,  who  came  in  1814;  and  to-day  they 
have  the  most  numerous  following  among  the  natives  and  the 
greatest  number  of  stations.  They  report  that  their  largest 
evangelistic  gains  come  through  the  educational  work  carried 
on  in  all  the  stations.  Wesley  College  is  exceptionally  useful 
and  its  best  graduates  complete  their  education  in  England. 
High  schools  for  girls  are  a  splendid  index  of  the  change  ef- 
fected by  missions  in  public  sentiment,  which  only  a  few 
decades  ago  was  correctly  mirrored  in  a  remark  made  by  a 
native  gentleman  when  asked  to  allow  his  daughter  to  attend 
school.  Pointing  to  a  horse  by  the  roadside,  he  said,  "  Sir, 
could  that  horse  learn  to  read?  "  Being  answered  in  the  nega- 
tive, the  gentleman  rejoined,  "  Well,  if  an  intelligent  animal 
like  a  horse  could  not  learn  to  read,  how  do  you  think  a  woman 
could  learn  ?  "  Special  attention  has  been  given  to  evangelism 
since  1897,  when  there  was  much  earnest  thought  and  prayer 
devoted  to  this  theme.  As  a  result,  workers'  conventions  have 
been  held,  and  continuous  missions  in  selected  heathen  centers 
have  been  conducted  for  twelve  days,  the  workers  going  in 
bands.  Hundreds  of  people  hear  the  gospel  first  in  the  great 
tent,  and  then  are  more  open  to  the  personal  appeal  made  by 
visitors  in  their  homes.  Not  only  are  many  converts  gained 
by  this  plan,  but  the  result  on  the  speakers  has  been  most  help- 
ful and  stimulating.  Evangelical  efforts  for  the  Veddahs  are 
thus  commented  on  in  a  recent  report:     "-There  were  twelve 


338  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

baptisms  among  this  remnant  of  an  interesting  but  dwindling 
aboriginal  race.  Perhaps  the  gospel  may  prove  salvation  to  the 
race  as  well  as  to  the  individual."  The  immense  output  of  the 
printing  department  of  this  mission  is  also  another  very  im- 
portant element  in  Ceylon's  evangelization. 

3.  In  1817  the  American  Board's  first  representatives  began 
those  labors  which  have  meant  so  much  for  Northern  Ceylon. 
Two  of  their  numerous  educational  enterprises  deserve  a 
word.  Jaffna  College  is  an  admirable  illustration  of  what  a 
missionary  institution  should  aim  to  produce,  though  it  must  be 
said  that  this  college  is  only  formally  connected  with  the 
Board  at  present.  Thoroughness  and  breadth  in  its  curriculum 
and  the  predominance  of  the  idea  that  the  institution  is  to  have 
as  its  fundamental  object  the  service  of  the  Church,  rather 
than  the  lower  aim  of  emphasizing  those  studies  which  are 
most  in  demand  for  the  government  service,  are  what  have 
given  the  college  its  prominence.  A  very  strong  missionary 
spirit  is  the  natural  outcome  of  this  ideal,  and  its  students  have 
formed  a  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  with  the  object  of  send- 
ing the  gospel  in  the  person  of  its  members  to  the  adjacent 
Indian  mainland.  Long  before  this  a  People's  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society  had  been  formed  in  the  same  mission,  and  very 
recently  a  Woman's  Missionary  Society  has  been  launched. 
Its  constitution  requires  each  member  to  pay  an  entrance  fee 
of  one  rupee  and  to  accept  a  mite-box  into  which  she  is  to  de- 
posit each  day  a  small  coin,  accompanying  it  with  a  prayer 
for  the  work  of  the  Society.  As  this  interest  in  those  outside 
the  limits  of  Ceylon  is  coordinate  with  great  activity  for  fel- 
low-countrymen on  their  own  peninsula,  the  movement  is 
promising.  Even  more  unique  is  the  record  of  the  Oodooville 
(Uduville)  Girls'  Boarding  School,  which  celebrated  its  sev- 
enty-fifth anniversary  in  1899.  At  that  time  it  had  trained 
1,233  girls,  538  during  the  first  fifty  years  and  701  in  the  last 
twenty-five  years.  Its  principal  during  most  of  this  time  was 
the  well-known  Miss  Agnew,  who  for  forty  years  remained 
at  her  post  without  once  revisiting  America.     So  signal  was 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  339 

the  service  of  this  "  mother  of  a  thousand  daughters,"  that  at 
her  funeral  "  government  officials,  missionaries'  families, 
v^^ives  of  native  pastors,  teachers,  catechists  and  a  large  con- 
course of  people  gathered  around  one  old  worn  face,  and  wept 
as  though  they  had  lost  a  mother."  Probably  this  institution 
ranks  first  in  the  percentage  of  heathen  girls  won  for  Jesus 
Christ  and  in  the  large  influence  exerted  by  its  graduates. 

In  the  matter  of  self-support  this  mission  has  been  the  leader 
in  Ceylon,  and  that,  though  a  careful  census  of  part  of  its  field 
showed  that  the  average  value  of  the  property  of  each  family 
was  $666,  while  forty-four  per  cent,  of  these  families  had  less 
than  $17  worth  of  property.  About  ten  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
expense  for  church  work  is  granted  by  the  Board,  the  re- 
mainder being  raised  by  the  Christians.  This  means  that  sys- 
tematic and  proportionate  giving  is  practiced  to  the  point  where 
it  costs  much  self-denial.  And  not  money  alone  is  given. 
"  Each  morning  when  a  Christian  woman  measures  out  the 
rice  for  the  family  for  the  day  —  so  many  handfuls  for  her 
husband,  for  each  child  and  for  herself,  —  she  takes  one  hand- 
ful or  more  and  puts  it  into  a  box  marked  '  The  Lord's  Box,' 
thus  diminishing  by  a  little  the  amount  the  family  would  have 
eaten.  This  custom  is  almost  universal  among  Christians. 
From  time  to  time  the  church  treasurer  of  each  church  visits 
all  the  Christian  homes,  collects  the  rice  from  these  boxes,  sells 
it,  and  sends  the  money  to  the  native  missionary  society."  They 
are  thus  imitators  of  the  self-sacrificing  Karens,  many  poor 
Koreans  and  dwellers  on  the  Harpoot  plain,  and  God  is  bless- 
ing them  abundantly. 

4.  In  1818,  a  year  later  than  the  American  Board's  entrance, 
the  first  missionaries  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  landed 
in  Ceylon.  Like  the  Wesleyans  and  Congregationalists,  the 
value  of  education  has  made  it  a  central  feature  of  all  this 
work,  including,  as  their  scheme  does,  a  number  of  day  schools. 
Girls'  High  schools,  and  as  its  apex  Trinity  College  at  the 
old  Buddhist  center  of  Kandy.  Trinity  is  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  non-Christians  who  are  won  for  Christ.    The  secret 


340  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  this  may  be  found  in  a  custom  that  has  prevailed  since 
1883,  when  Mr.  Garrett  reported :  "  Every  evening  the 
resident  masters  and  divinity  students  meet  to  pray  over 
those  who  are,  in  our  boarding  estabhshments,  more  especially 
entrusted  to  our  care.  We  take  the  roll  and  go  from  beginning 
to  end  by  fives,  each  night  bringing  five  names  before  God  in 
prayer;  and  thus  in  ten  days  we  feel  that  each  name  has  been 
individually  carried  by  faith  to  Jesus,  and  He  never  refused 
to  hear  and  grant  the  requests  of  those  who  brought  their 
children  to  Him  while  on  earth."  Other  notable  work  of  the 
Society  are  two  evangelistic  enterprises,  both  dating  from  the 
middle  of  last  century,  the  Tamil  Coolie  Mission  and  the 
Singhalese  Itineracy. 

In  a  variety  of  activities  the  Society  is  advancing,  until  it 
ranks  next  to  the  Wesleyans  in  the  number  of  communicants. 
Yet  it  is  a  labor  that  has  its  discouragements  as  well  as  its 
inspirations,  as  is  seen  in  the  following  extract  from  the  last 
report,  well  describing  the  "  White  Missionary's  Burden  "  : 
"  A  trusted  teacher  falsifies  her  school  register ;  four  of  our 
Christians  become  teachers  in  Buddhist  schools ;  six  of  our 
people  re-baptized  by  the  Romanists ;  two  of  our  old  Christian 
schoolgirls  married  to  Buddhists ;  three  of  our  former  school- 
masters start  opposition  schools ;  some  who  seemed  to  be  in 
earnest  have  fallen  away;  whilst  the  majority  of  the  Christians 
make  not  the  slightest  effort  to  lead  their  heathen  relatives 
or  neighbors  to  Christ.  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  get  a 
voluntary  worker  for  Christian  work.  The  cry  is  always  '  Pay, 
pay,  pay.'  "  This  lament  comes  from  the  southern  end  of  the 
island,  and  not  from  the  Tamil  district  of  the  North,  where 
independence  and  self-support  are  so  strongly  emphasized. 

5.  In  1842  the  last  of  the  four  organizations  to  be  men- 
tioned, the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  began 
its  work  in  an  organized  way,  though  a  beginning  had  been 
made  at  Colombo  two  years  earlier.  At  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  the  intemperance  of  men  from  Christian  lands  was  so 
well-nigh    universal    that    the    Christian    religion    itself    was 


BURMA    AND    CEYLON  34I 

regarded  as  synonymous  with  drunkenness.  "  What !  "  said 
a  Kandyan  chief  whose  son  was  a  candidate  for  baptism  and 
whose  permission  to  allow  the  rite  was  sought,  "  would  you 
have  me  make  him  a  drunkard  ?  "  Under  these  circumstances, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  when  the  natives  were  desirous  of 
education,  while  they  despised  the  foreigners'  religion,  the 
Bishop  should  have  regarded  schools  as  "  the  real  field  of 
hopeful  labor,  of  increasing  and  boundless,  but  not  unfruitful 
labor,  and  as  the  seed-plot  of  an  abundant  harvest."  Thus 
beginning,  education  has  been  very  prominent  ever  since ;  and 
to-day  St.  Thomas  College  at  Colombo  is  a  tower  of  strength. 
Hardly  less  important,  in  that  it  trains  the  Christian  wives 
and  mothers  of  the  Church,  is  the  Orphanage  at  Buona  Vista, 
though  at  present  having  few  boarding  pupils.  Industrial 
education  also  owes  its  introduction  and  development  in  the 
island  to  one  of  the  Society's  representatives,  Mr.  Thurston, 
whose  contention  was  this :  "  If  we  can  but  train  up  the 
rising  generation  in  such  schools,  the  idleness,  poverty  and 
wickedness  with  which  the  villages  now  abound,  must,  by 
God's  blessing,  be  lessened ;  the  inability  of  the  villagers  to 
contribute  toward  the  maintenance  of  Christian  teachers  be 
removed ;  Satan's  stronghold  must  be  undermined  and  a  high- 
way opened  through  his  territory  for  the  glad  tidings  of 
salvation."  The  beginning  thus  made  and  endorsed  by  the 
Government,  which  had  failed  in  its  own  attempts  of  the 
same  sort,  has  been  most  helpful  to  other  societies,  —  especially 
the  American  Board,  —  who  are  profiting  to-day  from  this 
initial  experiment  and  object-lesson.  Aside  from  mission 
work  among  Tamils,  the  Society's  ministrations  to  Europeans 
and  its  emphasis  of  self-support  have  aided  much  to  raise 
the  membership  of  the  Church  of  England  to  25,000.  Its 
own  communicants  and  baptized  adherents  number  less  than 
3,000,  however. 

6.  Nearly  all  the  societies  complain  of  the  inroads  upon 
their  membership,  and  of  interference  with  their  work,  by 
an   aroused   Buddhism.     The   present   recrudescence   of   that 


342  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

ancient  cult  is  mainly  due  to  the  visit  of  the  Occidental 
Theosophists,  Colonel  Olcott  and  Madame  Blavatsky,  who 
organized  in  Ceylon  twenty  years  since  a  branch  of  the 
Theosophical  Society  "  for  the  diffusion  of  Buddhistic  knowl- 
edge, as  a  set-off  against  the  Christians."  The  Colonel's 
avowed  object  was  to  "  entirely  uproot  Christianity  in  the 
island."  The  Bible  was  denounced,  and  at  Kandy  was  publicly 
kicked  about  the  street.  Sunday-schools  for  the  training  of 
children  in  the  Buddhist  Catechism ;  a  Young  Men's  Buddhist 
Association ;  the  observance  of  Buddha's  birthday  in  May,  in 
much  the  same  way  as  Christmas  is  celebrated ;  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools  and  a  college  at  government  expense, 
—  so  far  as  they  comply  with  its  regulations ;  the  publication 
of  tracts  and  periodicals,  one  of  them  in  English,  "  The 
Buddhist  " ;  teaching  their  coreligionists  all  the  stock  argu- 
ments against  Christianity,  —  these  are  some  of  the  weapons 
used  against  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  a  favorable 
fact  that,  with  increased  attention  to  education,  the  priests 
are  also  insisting  upon  a  better  morality,  especially  the 
observance  of  the  Five  Precepts  —  not  to  kill,  not  to  steal, 
not  to  lie,  not  to  be  impure,  not  to  drink  liquors.  Doubtless 
the  temporary  injury  caused  by  this  revival  will  be  found  in 
the  end  helpful  to  the  work,  as  was  the  case  in  the  similar 
revival  of  1862-64. 

7.  Despite  this  opposition  of  Buddhists,  the  outlook  in  the 
island  is  most  hopeful.  Revivals  are  not  infrequent,  one  of 
special  power  having  occurred  at  Colombo  within  a  few 
months,  when  Europeans,  Tamils  and  Singhalese  alike  were 
moved  to  the  very  depths  by  the  simple  gospel  of  sin  and 
salvation.  The  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, especially  as  it  affects  the  student  class,  is  another 
indication  of  the  ripeness  of  this  field  for  a  larger  influx  of 
reapers. 


XIV 
INDIA 

PART  I.  — GENERAL 

I.  The  "  Continent  "  of  India.  —  In  ordinary  usage  the 
word  "  continent  "  indicates  one  of  the  principal  divisions  of 
the  globe,  and  in  general,  the  idea  of  great  extent  is  connected 
with  the  term.  India  certainly  does  not  deserve  the  name  in 
any  such  sense,  since  it  is  not  much  larger  than  Arabia,  for 
instance,  and  is  far  smaller  than  the  Chinese  Empire.  In  the 
typical  use  of  the  word,  however,  it  is  a  continent,  since  it 
is  an  extended  body  of  land  bounded  by  very  marked  barriers, 
and  projecting  like  a  wedge  into  the  water  hemisphere.  More- 
over, it  contains  within  itself  every  fifth  man,  woman  and 
child  born  into  the  world,  and  these  multitudes  live  in  every 
climate  from  the  torrid  to  the  frigid,  and  speak  a  babel  of 
tongues. 

I.  Position  and  Area.  —  If  this  "  Wonderland  of  the  East," 
which  extends  into  the  Indian  Ocean  from  Central  Asia  to  a 
distance  of  1,900  miles  from  north  to  south,  were  laid  upon 
the  map  of  America,  its  northernmost  point  would  be  in  the 
latitude  of  Richmond,  Va.,  while  its  southernmost  cape  would 
reach  a  little  farther  south  than  Panama.  If  the  extreme 
eastern  boundary  were  placed  on  Baltimore,  the  western  limit 
would  be  near  Salt  Lake  City.  Within  its  boundaries  could 
be  placed  twice  over,  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
if  Ohio  and  Indiana  were  left  out.  Its  area  is  thus  almost 
equal  to  that  of  Europe  less  Russia.  Geographers  have  com- 
pared its  shape  with  that  of  an  equilateral  triangle ;  but  there 
343 


344  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

is  a  far  stronger  resemblance  to  the  head  and  neck  of  a  Hon, 
facing  westward  and  wearing  a  crown.  Others  writers  have 
called  it  "  The  Rudder  of  Asia,"  not  so  much  because  of  its 
dominating  influence  over  the  continent,  as  because  of  its 
peculiar  position,  shape  and  relation  to  the  ocean. 

2.  Main  Natural  Divisions  and  Their  Scenery.  —  Sir 
William  Hunter,  the  highest  authority  on  Indian  matters,  says 
in  general  of  the  country :  "  This  noble  Empire  is  rich  in 
varieties  of  scenery  and  climate,  from  the  highest  mountains 
in  the  world  to  vast  river-deltas,  raised  only  a  few  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  It  teems  with  the  products  of  nature, 
from  the  fierce  beasts  and  tangled  jungles  of  the  tropics,  to 
the  stunted  barley  crop,  which  the  hillman  rears,  and  the 
small  furred  animal  which  he  traps  within  sight  of  the  eternal 
snow.  But  if  we  could  look  down  on  the  whole  from  a 
balloon,  we  should  find  that  India  is  made  up  of  three  well- 
defined  tracts.  The  first  includes  the  Himalayan  mountains, 
which  shut  India  out  from  the  rest  of  Asia  on  the  North ;  the 
second  stretches  southward  from  their  foot,  and  comprises 
the  plains  of  the  great  rivers  which  issue  from  the  Himalayas ; 
the  third  tract  slopes  upward  again  from  the  southern  edge 
of  the  river  plains,  and  consists  of  a  high,  three-sided  table- 
land, dotted  with  peaks  and  covering  the  southern  half  of 
India." 

The  first  of  these  regions  is  the  vast  "  Abode  of  Snow," 
or  in  its  Sanskrit  equivalent,  the  Himalayas.  It  is  some  1,500 
miles  long,  with  a  breadth  in  sections  nearly  five  times  as 
great  as  the  entire  width  of  the  Alps.  It  has  been  said  that 
''  along  the  range  of  the  Himalayas  there  are  valleys  into 
which  the  whole  Alps  might  be  cast  without  producing  any 
result  that  would  be  discernible  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  fifteen 
miles."  This  is  the  region  which  furnishes  the  water  for 
India  and  Burma,  the  principal  rivers  of  which  rise  in  a  great 
trough  13,000  feet  above  the  sea,  lying  between  the  two  nearly 
parallel  Himalayan  chains.  Vast  glaciers,  one  of  them  sixty 
miles  long,  slowly  move  down  these  valleys.     In  the  upper 


INDIA  345 

ranges  one  sees  great  bare  masses  of  gray  rock  and  soil. 
Lower  down,  where  this  soil  is  deep  enough,  a  forest  springs 
up,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  are  dense  fever-breeding 
jungles  inhabited  by  only  a  few  rude  tribes  and  wild  beasts. 
Tree  ferns  and  bamboos  are  found  on  the  eastern  ranges, 
as  well  as  great  tracts  of  rhododendron,  blazing  with  red  and 
pink  blossoms  in  the  spring.  In  the  autumn  the  lower 
Himalayas  are  beautiful  with  variegated  crops  of  red  and 
yellow  millet,  which  run  in  stripes  down  the  hillsides.  The 
few  inhabitants  of  this  region  may  be  seen  straggling  down 
the  mountains  along  narrow  paths,  cut  in  places  out  of  the 
sheer  precipice,  and  bearing  loads  of  potatoes  and  other 
vegetables,  or  great  conical  baskets  of  grain.  This  region  is 
also  the  wood-yard  of  the  Empire.  The  high  price  of  fuel  on 
the  plains  has,  however,  caused  many  of  the  hills  to  be  denuded 
of  forests,  and  as  a  result  the  rains  rushing  down  the  bare 
slopes  prevent  new  growths  from  springing  up.  As  in  Ceylon, 
the  hillman  clears  his  potato  ground  by  burning  the  great  trees 
and  laying  out  the  side  of  the  mountain  into  terraces.  The 
trees  rot,  and  in  many  cases  after  the  soil  is  exhausted,  the 
peasants  leave  their  homes,  burn  down  new  jungle,  and 
proceed  to  exhaust  this  second  region. 

Proceeding  southward  from  the  vast  scimitar  with  its 
cutting  edge  facing  India,  we  reach  the  river  plains  which 
extend  across  the  country  from  east  to  west  and  contain  the 
three  greatest  Indian  rivers  with  their  tributaries.  As  they 
have  their  rise  in  the  mountains  where  the  greatest  recorded 
rainfall  of  the  globe  is  found,  they  bring  down  into  the  plains 
such  vast  deposits  of  fertile  soil  that  this  district  is  the  most 
populous  one  of  India.  The  scenery  of  the  plains  is  charming. 
Streams,  tilled  fields,  mango  growths,  mud  villages  shaded 
by  magnificent  trees,  feathery  thickets  of  bamboo,  wide- 
spreading  banyans  and  a  multitude  of  palms  make  it  a 
fairyland.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  early  Aryan  immi- 
grants were  quite  content  upon  reaching  this  part  of  the 
country  to  cease  their  wanderings.     These  plains  thus  became 


34^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  theater  of  the  great  race  movements  of  India's  history 
and  the  seat  of  its  early  civilization.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Great  Plain  of  China,  no  portion  of  the  world  is  so 
densely  inhabited  as  this.  The  Bengal  delta  especially  is 
fertile  beyond  belief  and  correspondingly  populous.  In  most 
of  these  plains  the  same  fields  yield  two  crops  annually,  thus 
giving  the  farmer  no  rest  except  during  the  hot  weeks  of 
May,  when  he  anxiously  awaits  the  rain. 

To  the  south  of  the  river  plains  lies  the  third  main  division 
of  India,  the  table-land  known  as  the  Deccan,  or  "  The 
South."  Two  sacred  mountains  stand  as  its  eastern  and 
western  sentinels,  while  between  them  stretches  a  cordon  of 
confused  hills  and  mountains.  These  ranges  constitute  the 
northern  wall  on  which  rests  the  central  plateau.  A  vast  mass 
of  forest  ridges  and  peaks,  broken  by  cultivated  valleys  and 
plains,  extends  southward  toward  the  Indian  Ocean.  On  the 
eastern  and  western  sides  is  found  an  elevated  rim  known  as 
the  Ghats,  a  word  commonly  used  of  flights  of  steps  by  the 
river  side.  Though  this  table-land  was  once  buried  under 
forests,  if  the  Sanskrit  poets  may  be  believed,  increased  tillage 
has  driven  back  the  jungle  to  the  hill  recesses.  The  black  soil 
of  the  cleared  country  is  proverbially  fertile,  almost  rivaling  the 
Bengal  delta  in  its  palms,  rich  rice  harvests  and  abundant 
crops  of  every  description.  Were  it  not  for  artificial  lakes 
used  as  irrigating  reservoirs,  the  liability  to  drought  would 
make  this  fertile  region  almost  valueless.  By  carefully  hus- 
banding the  water,  it  may  be  used  throughout  the  year  in 
ordinary  seasons.  The  Burman  section  of  India  has  already 
received  special  mention,  and  is  not  included  here. 

3.  Indian  Rivers.  —  The  place  of  these  rivers  in  the 
economy  of  the  Empire  is  of  the  greatest  moment  to  its 
inhabitants.  They  are  at  once  the  source  of  life-giving  water, 
and,  quite  as  important,  they  bring  down  in  their  flood  vast 
deposits  of  fertilizing  silt.  Mr.  F.  G.  Carpenter  estimates  that 
the  amount  of  soil  thus  brought  down  annually  by  the  Ganges 
alone  would  fill  freight  cars  enough  to  reach  twice  around  the 


INDIA  347 

earth  and  leave  enough  cars  over  to  run  two  continuous  trains 
through  the  center.  Hardly  less  important  is  its  service  to  the 
populace  as  the  maker  of  land.  The  delta  is  constantly  en- 
croaching upon  the  sea,  and  elsewhere  adding  depth  to  the  soil. 
One  attempt  to  find  the  bottom  of  this  fertile  deposit  failed 
when  the  drill  had  reached  a  depth  of  nearly  500  feet,  and  still 
the  deposits  are  continuing  to  be  made.  As  a  means  of  inter- 
communication these  rivers  are  of  the  utmost  value.  Ocean 
steamships  can  ascend  to  a  considerable  distance,  while  river 
steamers  and  native  craft  can  penetrate  far  into  the  interior. 
At  certain  places  great  collections  of  vessels  of  every  sort  con- 
stitute floating  towns  as  marked  almost  as  those  of  Southern 
China. 

It  must  be  said,  however,  that  the  rivers  are  likewise  de- 
stroyers. "  Scarcely  a  year  passes  without  floods,  which  sweep 
off  cattle  and  grain  stores,  and  the  thatched  cottages  with 
anxious  families  perched  on  their  roofs.  In  the  upper  part 
of  their  courses,  where  their  water  is  carried  by  canals  to  the 
fields,  rich  irrigated  lands  breed  fever  and  are  in  places  de- 
stroyed and  rendered  sterile  by  a  saline  crust.  Farther  down, 
the  uncontrollable  rivers  wriggle  across  the  face  of  the  country, 
deserting  their  old  beds  and  searching  out  new  channels  for 
themselves,  it  may  be  at  a  distance  of  many  miles.  During 
these  restless  changes  they  drown  the  land  and  villages  that  lie 
in  their  path.  Even  in  their  quiet  moods  the  rivers  steadily 
steal  land  from  the  old  owners  and  give  it  capriciously  to  a 
fresh  set.  Each  autumn  the  mighty  currents  undermine  and 
then  rend  away  the  fields  and  hamlets  on  their  margins." 

Because  of  their  twofold  character  as  benefactors  and  de- 
stroyers, they  are  the  dit'inities  of  vast  multitudes  of  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  well  known  that  the  Ganges  is  not  only  lovingly 
called  Mother  Ganges  and  worshiped  as  such,  but  that  other 
rivers  are  also  regarded  as  sacred.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  Narbada.  Ablutions  in  these  rivers  free  from  all  sin,  and 
death  on  their  banks  or  in  their  waters  is  ardently  desired. 

4.  Natural  Resources.  —  The  Empire  is  not  comparable  in 


348  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

these  respects  with  China  or  South  America.  Nevertheless  it 
is  well  provided  with  forests  and  other  means  of  subsistence. 
Not  including  Burma  and  Bengal,  the  forests  of  India  would 
cover  a  section  almost  as  large  as  the  New  England  States  and 
New  Jersey.  Teak,  ebony,  larch,  immense  elms  capable  of 
seating  600  persons  in  their  shade,  bamboos  attaining  the 
height  of  sixty  feet,  and  the  very  remarkable  banyans  and 
sacred  figs  are  prominent  among  trees ;  while  the  mango, 
orange  and  palm  furnish  highly  prized  fruits.  The  denudation 
of  forests,  above  alluded  to,  is  now  being  checked  and  the 
100,000  square  miles  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Forestry 
Commission  arc  yearly  becoming  increasing  sources  of  national 
wealth.  What  Kipling  so  vividly  pictures  in  his  "  letting  in 
the  jungle  "  is  an  illustration  of  what  can  be  accomplished 
where  the  wasteful  use  of  land  is  regulated  by  law. 

The  agricultural  possibilities  of  India  are  its  preeminent 
source  of  wealth.  Notwithstanding  the  dense  population, 
only  about  one-third  of  the  country  is  at  present  cultivated  or 
used  as  pasture  land.  Nearly  one-fourth  of  its  area  lies  idle, 
though  entered  in  statistics  as  capable  of  cultivation.  This 
fact  speaks  volumes  for  the  agricultural  future  of  the  Empire, 
and  when  the  Department  of  Agriculture  educates  the  people 
still  more  generally  along  agricultural  lines,  and  when  in- 
creased irrigation  is  available,  these  resources  will  be  still 
larger.  Tea  occupies  the  smallest  number  of  acres,  while  rice 
and  other  food  grains  cover  the  largest  territory,  with  an  inter- 
mediate area  devoted  to  indigo,  sugar  cane,  oil  seeds  and 
cotton. 

The  reader  will  naturally  ask  how  it  happens  that,  with  such 
vast  agricultural  resources,  millions*  should  be  destroyed  by 
periodical  famines,  accompanied  by  the  awful  experiences  of 
the  one  which  has  just  ceased  its  ravages.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  about  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  Empire's  area  contains 
only  eighty-seven  persons  to  the  square  mile,  while  the  rest 
supports  about  400  per  mile.  As  India  grows  its  own  food  in- 
stead of  importing  it,  and  as  some  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  peo- 


INDIA  349 

pie  are  entirely  dependent  upon  agriculture  for  their  living, 
with  twenty  per  cent,  more  indirectly  indebted  to  Mother  Earth 
in  the  same  way,  any  condition  which  prevents  abundant  har- 
vests is  apt  to  affect  many  millions.  When  to  this  is  added  the 
fact  that  the  ground  is  cultivated  by  oxen  and  that  the  people 
are  vegetarians  almost  exclusively,  the  gravity  of  the  situation 
is  increased  when  there  is  a  lack  of  rain  and  the  oxen  die.  The 
village  and  caste  system,  to  be  described  later,  still  further  ag- 
gravates the  situation ;  since  each  village  has  been  accustomed 
to  depend  upon  itself,  and  each  caste  regards  as  defilement 
certain  forms  of  contact  with  the  men  and  products  of  another 
caste.  Failure  in  rains  always  produces  disasters,  and  when 
this  is  serious  or  occurs  in  consecutive  years,  the  results  are 
most  calamitous.  Any  one  who  has  read  the  paper  on  this  sub- 
ject by  the  late  census  commissioner  for  India,  Mr.  J.  A. 
Baines,  will  be  filled  with  admiration  for  the  remarkable  scope 
of  the  Government's  plan  for  relieving  suffering  without 
pauperizing  the  people.  China,  and  other  countries  subject  to 
famine,  might  well  study  the  provisions  there  described.  Yet 
how  inadequate  they  are  when  confronted  by  the  conditions 
of  the  past  two  years  the  whole  world  knows,  and  men  of  every 
race  are  moved  to  alleviate  the  disasters  affecting  so  many 
millions. 

5.  Climate.  —  In  a  country  extending  over  twenty-six  de- 
grees of  latitude  and  including  within  it  such  great  differences 
in  elevation,  there  can  be  no  statement  made  covering  all  points. 
In  general,  the  cool  months  extend  from  November  to  the  mid- 
dle of  February.  The  dry,  hot  weather  precedes  the  periodical 
rains  and  the  moist  heat  follows  them.  Missionaries  usually 
suffer  from  the  heat  in  inverse  proportion  to  their  distance 
from  the  equator,  Northern  India  being  far  more  trying  than 
Southern.  Most  of  the  Empire  lies  between  the  July  isotherm 
of  80°  in  the  South  and  90°  in  the  North,  while  in  January  it 
lies  between  the  lines  of  80°  in  the  South  and  60°  in  the  North. 

The  rains  are  dependent  to  a  large  degree  upon  the  mon- 
soon and  the  location  of    the  mountains,  against    which    the 


3SO  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

vapor-bearing  clouds  impinge.  In  one  section  of  the  country 
the  fall  averages  thirty  feet,  and  in  one  year  it  reached  as  high 
as  sixty-seven  feet ;  but  in  the  Deccan  and  along  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Ganges  and  Indus  it  is  only  two  and  a  half  feet. 
Were  it  not  for  the  extensive  reservoirs  and  irrigating  canals, 
India  would  suffer  greatly  from  aridity. 

During  the  cool  and  pleasant  season  of  the  winter  health 
conditions  are  favorable,  while  in  the  hot  term  there  is  no  great 
danger  if  undue  exposure  is  avoided.  This  extends  from  Feb- 
ruary to  May.  With  the  wet  season  lasting  from  June  to  Oc- 
tober, unhealthiness  is  prevalent. 

6.  The  effect  of  environment  upon  the  inhabitants  of  India 
has  been  often  alluded  to,  though  perhaps  it  has  been  unduly 
emphasized.  It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  the  leisure  af- 
forded by  the  fertile  river  plains  and  the  favoring  climate  were 
a  rich  endowment  to  the  early  Aryan  settlers.  A  native  author 
thus  writes  concerning  his  countrymen :  "  All  nature  con- 
spired to  make  them  thoughtful  and  imaginative.  What  was 
more  pleasant  than  on  a  hot  afternoon  to  sit  under  the  um- 
brageous banyan  or  pipal  tree  and  reflect  or  discuss?  Micro- 
cosm was  the  study  of  the  Hindu  as  macrocosm  has  been  that 
of  the  modern  European.  Moral  science  was  the  intellectual 
basis  of  Hindu  civilization,  as  natural  science  is  that  of  the 
modern  civilization  of  Europe."  Whether  the  result  of  en- 
vironment or  not,  it  is  true  that  compared  with  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  the  Hindu  has  been  overcome  by  nature  rather  than 
made  himself  its  conqueror.  Hence  we  have  a  weaker  race  than 
the  Western  Aryans  have  come  to  be.  A  helpful,  though  in- 
direct, influence  upon  the  inhabitants  has  been  exerted  because 
Indian  soil  from  early  times  has  been  the  "  Prize  of  the  East." 
This  led  inevitably  to  a  continuous  influx  of  new  race  elements, 
and  in  consequence  the  Hindu  shares  some  of  the  advantages 
of  the  intermixture  of  varied  bloods.  If  caste  and  other  causes 
had  not  prevented  a  larger  amalgamation  of  races,  he  would, 
however,  have  been  a  stronger  man  than  he  is. 

Foreigners  find  the  climate  less  favorable  than  that  of  the 


INDIA  351 

temperate  zone.  While  some  are  unable  to  endure  it,  most 
persons  live  to  a  good  old  age,  if  they  exercise  proper  care.  A 
sufficiency  of  sleep  and  due  regard  to  diet  and  recreation  have 
won  many  a  missionary  battle  that  would  otherwise  have  re- 
sulted in  physical  defeat.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
the  magnificent  hills  and  mountains  of  India  offer  in  every 
section  a  picturesque  and  healthful  place  of  refuge  during  the 
trying  months.  The  chief  obstacle  that  confronts  the  mission- 
aries is  the  necessity  of  sending  to  the  home  land  their  chil- 
dren at  an  early  age.  If  retained  too  long  in  their  adopted 
country,  they  are  apt  to  be  feeble  and  short-lived. 

II.  The  Peoples  of  India.  —  Nowhere  outside  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire  can  be  found  so  many  people  who  call  one  country 
their  fatherland,  and  nowhere  in  the  world  are  there  so  many 
races  enclosed  within  such  limited  boundaries.  In  its  great 
sister  Empire  to  the  northeast  are  greater  populations,  but 
the  Chinese  are  practically  homogeneous,  while  the  Indian  Em- 
pire is  lacking  in  that  most  important  element  of  strength. 

I.  Leading  Races  and  Sectional  Differ  entice.  —  The  simplest 
classification  of  the  many  races  of  India  would  reduce  the  di- 
visions to  four.  According  to  the  census  of  1891  these  include 
all  those  numbering  more  than  one  and  a  half  millions.  By 
the  census  just  completed  but  not  published  in  detail,  it  appears 
that  the  entire  population  of  India,  including  the  Native 
States,  has  increased  from  a  little  more  than  287,000,000  to 
294,266,701.  The  comparatively  small  rate  of  increase  —  4.44 
per  cent,  in  British  territory,  with  a  loss  of  4.34  per  cent,  in 
the  Native  States,  thus  leaving  a  net  gain  of  only  2.42  per  cent, 
during  the  years  1891-1901 — is  reduced  still  further  by  the 
fact  that  tracts  are  here  reckoned  in  that  were  not  enumerated 
in  1891.  Famine  and  other  unfavorable  conditions  only  par- 
tially account  for  the  small  actual  gain  of  1.49  per  cent,  as  com- 
pared with  1 1.2  per  cent,  during  1881-1891.  Burma  and  Shan- 
land  have  added  30  per  cent,  to  their  populations  during  the 
past  decade,  according  to  the  "  London  Times,"  from  which 
the  above  facts  are  derived. 


352  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Below  is  given  a  brief  statement  concerning  the  four  main 
race  groups  and  their  distribution.  The  numbers  are  from  the 
census  of  1891.  The  Kolarians  may  have  been  the  first  to 
enter  India.  Coming  from  the  Northeast  they  apparently 
spread  westward  over  the  northern  plains.  At  present  "  they 
dwell  chiefly  along  the  northwestern  ranges  of  the  central 
table-land  which  covers  the  southern  half  of  India,"  and  num- 
ber 2.96  millions.  The  Tiheto-Burmans  seem  to  have  come  at 
various  times  from  Tibet  into  Northeastern  India.  They  still 
remain  in  the  mountainous  sections  of  the  Northeast  and  num- 
ber 7.29  millions.  These  two  race  stocks  are  probably  of  Mon- 
gol origin.  The  Dravidians  apparently  entered  India  from  the 
Northwest,  and  driving  the  Kolarians  before  them  to  the 
mountainous  region  of  Northern  Deccan,  they  eventually  burst 
through  their  territory  and  scattered  over  South  India. 
They  now  dwell  in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  and  are 
reported  as  numbering  52.96  millions.  The  most  numerous 
race  is  the  Aryo-Indic.  The  Aryans  entered  the  country  from 
the  Northwest  and  gradually  overspread  the  northern  half  of 
India.  By  a  process  of  absorption  and  accretion  they  have  be- 
come the  most  numerous  race  in  the  Empire,  some  195.46  mil- 
lions in  all. 

Sectional  differentice,  largely  due  to  local  environment, 
though  partly  racial,  are  thus  described  by  Keane :  "  In  the 
Punjab  and  in  the  Indus  Desert,  where  the  earth  has  only 
yielded  her  increase  to  strenuous  labor,  the  peasantry  are  strong 
and  warlike ;  in  the  eastern  provinces,  where  the  water  supply 
is  abundant,  the  inhabitants  are  densely  packed  but  physically 
weak ;  in  the  central  parts  the  conditions  are  of  an  intermediate 
character ;  a  fertility  somewhat  less  than  in  Bengal  and  with 
less  certainty  of  rainfall  produces  races  which  from  Oudh  to 
the  Narbada  have  always  been  robust  and  laborious,  almost  — 
but  not  quite  —  as  much  so  as  in  the  drier  regions  of  the  far 
West."  The  height,  strength  and  courage  of  those  dwelling 
in  the  North  are  generally  greater  than  are  found  in  Southern 
India.     While  these  general  statements  are  in  the  main  true, 


INDIA 


353 


the  Brahman  maintains  his  individuality  in  all  sections.  Every- 
where he  is,  like  all  others  of  his  fellow-religionists,  "  imbued 
with  a  lofty  pride  transmitted  through  long  generations." 

2.  From  the  missionary  point  of  view  a  very  serious  diffi- 
culty is  encountered  in  the  languages  of  India.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  great  number  of  distinct  tongues  and  dialects,  there 
were  in  1891  only  eleven  that  were  spoken  by  five  millions  or 
more.  In  the  absence  of  the  full  statistics  of  1901  the  figures 
of  ten  years  ago  are  printed  with  the  caution  that  they  are  now 
not  quite  correct.     An  average    of    two  per    cent,  should  be 

Where  spoken.  speaking  it. 

N.  W.  Provinces,  Rajputana,  Punjab,  etc.,  85.68 
Lower  Bengal,  41-34 

Lower  basins  of  Kistna  and  Godavari,        19.89 
Bombay  and  N.  W.  Deccan,  18.89 

Punjab,  17-72 

Southern  India,  as  far  north  as  Madras,     15.23 
Region  around  Gulf  of  Cambay,  10.62 

Mysore  and  districts  northward,  9.75 

Orissa,  9.01 

Burma,  5.56 

Travancore  and  rest  of  Malabar  coast,         5.43 


Race  stock. 

Language. 

Aryo-Indic, 

Hindi, 

Aryo-Indic, 

Bengali, 

Dravidian, 

Telugu, 

Aryo-Indic, 

Marathi, 

Aryo-Indic, 

Punjabi, 

Dravidian, 

Tamil, 

Aryo-Indic, 

Gujarati, 

Dravidian, 

Kanarese, 

Aryo-Indic, 

Uriya, 

Tibeto-Burman, 

,   Burmese, 

Dravidian, 

Malayalam, 

The  English  language  stood  twenty-eighth  in  order  with  a 
population  of  238,499.  Hindustani,  with  a  Southern  variety  of 
it,  the  Dakhani,  has  become  the  lingua  franca  of  India  and  is 
"  the  official  tongue  under  English  rule,  except  so  far  as  Eng- 
lish itself  is  used." 

3.  Characteristics  Common  to  Most  Hindus.  —  In  the  midst 
of  differences  there  are  some  characteristics  common  to  most 
Hindus.  Physically  considered,  the  average  person  is  pos- 
sessed of  greater  powers  of  endurance  and  of  continuous  bodily 
exertion  with  but  scanty  sustenance  than  one  sees  in  America 
or  Europe ;  indeed,  the  Hindu  is  scarcely  excelled  by  any  race 
in  this  respect.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  been  estimated  that 
in  the  matter  of  strength  he  has  not  half  that  of  the  European, 
while  in  nervous  power  he  has  about  one-third  our  strength. 


354  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

As  a  workman,  therefore,  he  is  worth  only  one-sixth  as  much 
as  an  Occidental.  "  Epidemics  commit  fearful  ravages  among 
these  enfeebled  populations.  Cholera  is  domiciled  in  all  large 
towns ;  elephantiasis,  under  various  forms,  is  very  common, 
afflicting  one-fifth  of  the  inhabitants  in  some  provinces ;  and 
in  1872  there  were  as  many  as  102,000  lepers  in  the  three 
Presidencies  alone.  The  mean  death  rate  for  the  whole  of 
India  is  stated  by  Hunter  to  be  32.57  per  thousand,  or  one- 
third  higher  than  West  Europe."  The  weakness  of  this  race 
can  hardly  be  explained  by  the  climate  and  their  vegetable 
diet.  Early  marriages  and  the  inter-marriage  for  centuries  of 
more  or  less  consanguineous  parties  doubtless  have  much  to  do 
with  their  feebleness. 

Social  Characteristics.  —  Caste  naturally  unites  the  people 
of  a  given  subdivision  very  closely.  At  the  same  time  it  re- 
produces in  the  little  village  the  same  evils  of  class  divisiorts 
that  our  cities  have  to  contend  with.  Happily  for  their  peace, 
these  differences  are  looked  upon  as  decreed  and  are  no  occa- 
sion for  heartburnings.  In  the  family  there  is  little  of  the 
social  spirit.  Yet  in  the  matter  of  labor  there  is  a  general  care 
for  the  interests  of  all.  This  is  the  key  to  the  industrial  situa- 
tion rather  than  caste  alone.  Thus  the  European  in  India 
needs  to  have  a  troop  of  servants,  each  doing  the  work  appro- 
priate to  his  caste  and  also  that  which  will  not  encroach  on  the 
interests  of  other  workmen. 

Apart  from  the  caste  and  trade  guild  regulations,  altruism 
in  India  is  lost  in  an  intense  egoism,  and  this  holds  true  in 
one's  relations  to  those  outside  one's  own  caste,  to  the  country 
at  large  and  to  the  gods  above.  The  losses,  sufferings  and 
cruelties  that  come  to  others  are  regarded  with  supreme  uncon- 
cern. Such  a  thing  as  patriotism  does  not  exist  among  the 
masses,  while  the  disinterested  benevolence  of  missionaries  is 
looked  upon  with  suspicion.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions 
to  this  broad  statement,  many  of  the  wealthy  being  munificent 
in  their  gifts,  while  the  indigent  are  frequently  aided  by  the 
very  poor. 


INDIA  355 

That  the  Aryo-Indic  section  of  the  population  has  possessed 
intellectual  power  in  the  past  is  abundantly  evidenced  by  the 
Sanskrit  language  and  the  earlier  literature  embalmed  within 
it.  Max  Miiller  does  not  unduly  laud  these  writers  of  a  purer 
age  when  he  writes:  "If  I  were  asked  under  what  sky  the 
human  mind  has  most  fully  developed  some  of  its  choicest 
gifts,  has  most  deeply  pondered  on  the  greatest  problems  of 
life,  and  has  found  solutions  of  some  of  them  which  will  de- 
serve the  attention  of  those  who  have  studied  Plato  and  Kant, 
I  should  point  to  India."  At  the  present  time,  also,  India  pos- 
sesses men  of  marked  ability  in  the  scholarly  walks  of  life, 
thus  proving  her  right  to  be  called  intellectual.  The  masses 
do  not  rank  high  in  this  direction,  but  in  time  the  present  edu- 
cational movement  on  the  part  of  the  Government  and  mission- 
ary societies  will  introduce  scholarly  blood  into  their  veins. 

Widely  differing  estimates  as  to  the  moral  nature  of  the 
Hindu  here  confront  us,  the  historian  Mill,  for  example,  paint- 
ing their  character  in  somber  colors,  while  a  recent  native 
author  adduces  a  multitude  of  Occidental  witnesses  to  prove 
that  his  countrymen  rank  high  in  respect  to  morals.  Another 
writer  puts  the  case  thus :  "  There  is  no  degree  of  cruelty,  no 
excess  of  vice,  no  hardened  profligacy,  no  ineffable  abomina- 
tion, of  which  we  cannot  find  examples  among  the  Hindus; 
but  neither  is  there,  on  the  other  hand,  any  height  of  virtue 
which  they  have  not  reached." 

Dr.  Murdoch  thus  epitomizes  feminine  characteristics.  The 
woman,  who  is  nearly  always  a  wife,  is  faithful  and  devoted  to 
her  husband,  affectionate  toward  her  children,  attentive  to 
household  duties,  sympathetic  toward  the  poor  and  distressed, 
modest,  and,  compared  with  women  of  the  Occident,  remark- 
ably free  from  crime.  Over  against  these  excellencies  are 
placed  the  following  defects:  she  is  ignorant,  absorbed  with 
petty  littlenesses,  is  passionately  fond  of  jewels,  exhibits  a  false 
modesty,  is  an  unrivaled  scold,  is  unable  to  train  her  children 
properly,  exerts  little  moral  influence  over  her  husband  and 
is  extremely  superstitious. 


356  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

The  ordinary  woman  seems  to  be  much  stronger  physically 
than  women  of  the  West,  as  she  performs  heavy  labor  on  the 
farm  and  on  the  roads;  yet  Hon.  M.  L.  Sircar,  M.D.,  states 
that  "  from  medical  observation  extending  over  thirty  years, 
he  could  say  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  Hindu  women  die  pre- 
maturely through  early  marriage,  twenty-five  per  cent,  more 
were  invalided  by  the  same  cause  and  the  vast  majority  of  the 
remainder  suffered  in  health  from  it."  This  remark  applies 
especially  to  women  of  the  higher  castes,  but  it  is  true  to  a 
less  degree  of  the  poorer  women  also. 

HI.  Two  Distinguishing  Social  Institutions.  —  i. 
The  village  is  the  home  of  the  masses,  as  widely  isolated  dwell- 
mgs  are  almost  unknown,  and  comparatively  few  live  in  the 
cities.  Census  reports  show  that  about  ninety  per  cent,  of 
the  population  dwell  in  villages  of  less  than  2,000  inhabitants. 
In  appearance  they  do  not  greatly  vary.  Two  main  sections 
are  noted;  one  inhabited  by  the  higher  caste,  the  other  by  the 
outcastes  and  non-castes.  Houses  belonging  to  the  well-to-do 
are  shaded  to  some  extent  by  palms,  banyans,  margosas  and 
other  trees.  In  the  absence  of  sanitary  regulations,  dust,  filth 
and  stifling  odors  abound.  The  village  tank  for  watering  cat- 
tle, washing  clothes  and  irrigating  fields,  and  the  well  and 
open  market-place  are  the  common  places  of  resort. 

The  village  system  has  won  the  admiration  of  Western  writ- 
ers. It  is  a  miniature  republic  presided  over  by  a  potail  or 
"  head  inhabitant,"  aided  by  a  clerk  and  panchayet,  or  "  council 
of  five,"  who  decide  cases  of  a  moral  nature.  Other  function- 
aries are  the  village  priest,  schoolmaster  and  watchman.  "  Be- 
sides these,  almost  every  village  has  its  astrologer,  smith,  car- 
penter, potter,  barber  and  bard,  all  of  whom  are  rewarded  out 
of  the  produce  of  the  village  lands."  Each  village  is  thus  self- 
sufficient  and  constitutes  a  unit,  which  cares  little  for  other 
villages  and  the  central  Government. 

2.  The  Caste  Curse  in  India.  —  This  is  the  Hindu's  environ- 
ment and  the  greatest  obstacle  encountered  by  the  Christian 
missionary.   It  is  popularly  considered  as  a  religious  institution 


INDIA  357 

dating  from  the  Vedic  period  and  buttressed  by  the  Laws  of 
Manu.  Modern  writers  like  Muir,  Miiller  and  Cornish  argue 
that  instead  of  having  this  divine  origin,  caste  is  due  to  differ- 
ences in  race,  employment  and  location. 

The  original  system  recognized  but  four  castes,  the  priests, 
warriors  and  agriculturists,  who  were  the  "  twice  born,"  and 
the  "  once  born  "  Sudras  who  were  menials,  artisans,  etc.  At 
present  the  original  castes  do  not  exist  in  their  purity,  the 
Brahmans  and  Sudras  remaining  most  distinct.  Caste  sub- 
divisions are  extremely  numerous  and  complicated.  Hunter 
states  the  number  as  at  least  three  thousand,  though  according 
to  the  Madras  census  returns  for  1881  there  were  19,044  caste 
names.  The  members  of  the  Sudra  sub-castes  are  most  nu- 
merous and  constitute  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  popula- 
tion. 

There  are  some  advantages  in  the  system.  Missionaries 
have  noted  its  value  in  the  matter  of  securing  the  economic  ad- 
vantages of  division  of  labor  and  the  protection  coming  from 
the  larger  caste  family.  It  promotes  to  some  extent  cleanli- 
ness and  is  a  moral  restraint  in  certain  directions.  It  has  also 
proven  its  value  to  the  British  Government  from  a  political 
and  police  point  of  view ;  it  has  kept  alive  a  learned  class  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  blotted  out  of  existence.  To  the 
higher  classes  it  has  been  a  temperance  element  of  great  value 
in  that  it  forbids  the  use  of  Hquor.  Caste  has  made  the  Hindus 
content  with  their  lot,  and  among  those  who  contend  most 
strenuously  for  it  are  the  lowest  of  the  people. 

The  disadvantages  far  outweigh,  however,  these  caste  bene- 
fits. A  native  scholar,  Shiva  Nath  Sastri,  scores  the  follow- 
ing points  against  the  system.  It  has  produced  division  and 
discord ;  it  has  made  manual  labor  contemptible ;  it  has  checked 
internal  and  external  commerce ;  by  confining  marriage  within 
narrow  circles,  it  has  produced  physical  degeneracy ;  it  has  fos- 
tered an  injurious  conservatism ;  it  has  checked  the  develop- 
ment of  individuality  and  independence  of  character;  it  has 
encouraged  harmful  customs  such  as  early  marriages,  heavy 


358  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

wedding  fees,  etc. ;  it  has  prevented  the  growth  of  national 
worth  by  confining  to  a  Hmited  number  the  benefits  of  culture ; 
by  imposing  on  the  people  the  most  abject  spiritual  slavery,  it 
has  prepared  the  country  for  foreign  slavery.  Its  general  op- 
position to  the  Christian  doctrine  of  universal  brotherhood 
and  compassion  are  too  manifest  to  be  enlarged  upon. 

IV.  The  Religious  Life  of  India.  —  Prof.  Duncker  in  his 
"  History  of  Antiquity  "  has  very  truly  remarked,  "  Religion 
has  dominated  the  life  of  the  Indians  more  thoroughly  than 
that  of  almost  any  other  nation."  Occidentals  who  have  trav- 
eled in  the  Empire  have  come  to  realize  this,  but  those  living  at 
home  conceive  of  India's  religious  life  from  the  standpoint  of 
"  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East "  and  special  volumes  dealing 
with  Indian  religions.  If  one  would  get  a  true  view  of  the 
religious  life  prevalent  there,  he  would  need  to  practically 
eliminate  the  Brahmans  who  compose  a  very  limited  portion 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  consider  the  masses,  about  two-thirds 
of  whom  are  entered  in  the  census  as  Hindus.  Before  sum- 
marizing the  religious  conditions  of  the  vast  majority  of  the 
people,  however,  a  word  must  be  said  about  other  faiths. 

1.  Though  Buddha  is  India's  most  widely  known  son, 
Hinduism  trampled  under  foot  his  teachings,  so  that  in  the  land 
of  the  sacred  fig  tree  less  than  ten  millions,  of  whom  all  except 
about  one-quarter  of  a  million,  are  resident  in  Burma,  are  now 
following  in  Gautama's  footsteps. 

2.  A  larger  number  are  entered  as  animistic  in  faith.  This 
means  that  scattered  through  the  Empire  are  several  millions 
who  are  devoted  to  the  worship  of  objects  of  nature  and  spirits 
without  any  thought  of  higher  divinities.  In  this  respect,  how- 
ever, all  Hindus  are  more  or  less  animistic  and  differ  from 
those  entered  as  such  mainly  through  their  nominal  devotion  to 
Hindu  deities  of  the  book  religions. 

3.  The  Mohammedans  —  Muhammedans  —  of  India  far 
outnumber  those  found  in  any  other  single  country.  The  Ot- 
toman Empire,  ruled  by  the  Sultan  and  containing  the  sacred 
cities  of  the  Prophet,  has  a  far  smaller  number  of  the  faithful 


INDIA  359 

than  are  obedient  to  the  sceptre  of  Britain's  Christian  King, 
the  Emperor  of  India.  The  Mohammedan  population  is  nearly 
six-sevenths  as  numerous  as  the  total  population  of  the  United 
States.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  there  so  large  a  number 
of  Mohammedans  under  the  rule  of  a  single  man.  This  fact 
is,  however,  subject  to  many  limitations.  Any  one  conversant 
with  the  history  of  Northwestern  India  will  recall  the  per- 
petual atmosphere  of  unrest  prevailing  there  and  will  realize 
the  force  of  Mr.  Baine's  words :  "  It  is  not  irrelevant,  in  view 
of  the  present  state  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  to  remind  those 
interested  in  India  that  conditions  are  much  the  same  as  those 
existing  between  Islam  and  Eastern  Christianity  in  Armenia; 
though  fortunately  another  creed  being  in  political  power  in 
our  dependency,  the  tension  between  the  two  is  not  made  so 
unpleasantly  apparent  as  in  Asia  Minor.  Incidents,  all  the 
same,  are  constantly  occurring  which,  though  local  and  com- 
paratively of  a  trifling  character,  are  quite  enough  to  make 
manifest  to  us  in  England  what  is  a  constant  source  of  appre- 
hension to  those  responsible  for  the  peace  of  India  in  the  coun- 
try itself,  namely,  the  smouldering  fire  of  religious  animosity 
which  is  only  awaiting  a  favorable  opportunity  to  burst  into 
open  violence." 

4.  Popular  Hinduism.  —  As  defined  by  the  veteran  mis- 
sionary, Dr.  Murdoch,  this  is  the  religion  of  the  Ramayana, 
Mahabharata,  the  Puranas  and  the  Tantras.  About  ninety- 
nine  out  of  every  hundred  accept  Hinduism  in  this  form.  It 
is  almost  universal  among  the  women,  and  is  that  which  they 
teach  their  children. 

The  basis  of  this  popular  faith  is  found  in  the  literary  works 
named  above  and  in  aboriginal  traditions.  The  Tantras,  con- 
sisting of  dialogues,  incantations  and  magic  services,  furnish 
its  most  licentious  and  abominable  features. 

Connected  with  the  superstitions  and  harmful  teachings  in 
these  books  is  a  nature  worship,  ranging  from  that  of  plants, 
water,  tools  and  animals,  to  the  higher  worship  of  ancestors 
and  of  living  men  deemed  divine,  —  the  entire  Brahman  caste. 


360  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Tutelar  deities,  demons,  gods  and  goddesses,  —  popularly 
reckoned  as  330,000,000  in  number,  —  are  almost  universally 
believed  in  and  evidences  of  religion  are  to  be  seen  on  every 
hand.  Pilgrimages  are  a  most  important  feature  of  Hinduism 
and  enlist  a  larger  number  of  the  faithful  than  vi^end  their  way 
to  the  holy  cities  of  Islam. 

5.  The  effects  of  religion,  especially  of  popular  Hinduism, 
upon  the  life  are  most  injurious,  though  they  undoubtedly  have 
some  helpful  features.  Poverty  and  wholesale  destruction  of 
life  are  partly  the  result  of  caste.  The  peculiar  views  held 
concerning  religious  teachers  prevent  the  ordinary  Hindu,  even 
if  he  were  so  inclined,  from  attaining  to  the  best  in  Hinduism. 
Fear  is  everywhere  present ;  man,  as  well  as  children  and 
women,  are  constantly  in  dread  of  demons,  the  evil  eye,  etc.  No 
other  form  of  religion,  not  even  the  most  exaggerated  phase  of 
Pharisaism,  has  so  emphasized  the  formal  element  in  the 
religious  life.  So,  too,  popular  Hinduism  is  impure,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  temples  in  India  containing  under  their  roofs 
symbols  which  put  to  the  blush  ancient  Baal  worship,  and  often 
sheltering  women  who  are  sold  to  the  gods  to  work  iniquity. 
It  is  well  known  that  portions  of  the  Sacred  Books  are  so  ob- 
scene that  the  English  Government  restricts  their  translation. 
The  deities  themselves  are  represented  as  being  so  licentious 
that  even  Greek  and  Roman  gods  seem  pure  in  comparison. 
Pantheism  and  transmigration  are  the  two  beliefs  of  Hindu- 
ism which  are  the  most  destructive  of  true  relations  and  of  fu- 
ture hope.  Notwithstanding  these  awful  facts  the  religious  de- 
sire is  present  in  wonderful  power,  and  the  ground  is  more 
ready  to  receive  the  gospel  seed  than  in  atheistic  China  or 
bigoted  Turkey. 

PART  II.  — MISSIONARY 

Part  I  of  this  chapter  may  possibly  have  filled  the  reader's 
mind  with  despair  as  to  the  missionary's  ever  effecting  any 
great  transformations  in  an  Empire  where  everything  is  on  so 


INDIA  361 

vast  a  scale.  The  very  numbers  appal  the  thought ;  how  can 
Protestantism,  which  in  the  entire  world  exceeds  the  Indian 
population  by  only  about  one-third,  ever  hope  to  carry  the 
gospel  to  India's  nearly  three  hundred  millions?  Even  if  re- 
ceptive and  ready  for  the  message,  the  task  would  be  colossal ; 
but  how  infinitely  more  difficult  when  the  appeal  is  made  to 
people  who  are  mad  upon  their  idols  —  exceedingly  religious, 
like  the  Athenians  of  old  —  and  bound  by  the  strongest  fetters 
that  have  ever  enthralled  a  race  —  those  of  a  caste  that  is  at 
once  economic,  social  and  religious,  as  well  as  anchored  to 
the  bedrock  of  a  venerated  past ! 

I.  Obstacles.  —  Those  which  confront  missionaries  in 
most  foreign  countries  —  unhealthful  climate,  difficult  lan- 
guages, poor  means  of  intercommunication  in  many  sections, 
etc.,  are  not  mentioned,  as  India  is  far  superior  to  many  mis- 
sion lands  in  these  respects. 

1.  The  immense  population  is  at  once  an  advantage  and  an 
obstacle.  Instead  of  being  a  land  where  one  must  traverse 
great  distances  to  find  the  people,  in  this  Empire  they  are 
everywhere.  The  difficulty  presented  by  India's  millions  lies 
in  the  very  large  force  required  in  order  to  reach  the  566,048 
villages  which  in  1891  contained  500  inhabitants  or  less,  three- 
fifths  of  them  having  under  200  inhabitants.  Moreover, 
where  the  population  is  so  great,  the  converts  gained  appear  as 
so  infinitesimal  a  proportion  that  the  influence  of  a  hostile  and 
overwhelming  majority  militates  against  the  entrance  of  many 
into  the  Church. 

2.  If  these  masses  were  of  one  language  or  race,  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  their  evangelization  would  be  less  than 
at  present,  when  so  many  different  peoples  are  to  be  reached. 
These  races  are  as  distinct  as  the  Spaniards  and  Russians ; 
hence  a  missionary  may  be  dwelling  in  a  district  one-half  of 
whose  people  he  can  scarcely  communicate  with  through  the 
medium  of  a  language  that  is  perfectly  familiar  to  the  others 
of  that  region.  Happily  the  number  understanding  each  of 
the  leading  languages  is  so  great,  that  this  obstacle  is  not  at 


362  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

all  serious,  as  in  the  case  of  missionaries  in  such  fields  as  the 
New  Hebrides.  The  seriousness  of  these  enthnographic  diver- 
gences lies  in  the  fact  that  between  some  of  the  races  so  great 
prejudices  exist  that  a  single  united  Indian  Church  and  real 
fellowship  in  the  missionary  enterprise  of  the  Empire  is  im- 
possible, especially  with  the  superadded  difficulty  of  caste  sur- 
vivals in  the  Church's  rank  and  file. 

3.  One  element  in  this  gathering  of  the  nations  is  frequently 
a  decided  drawback  to  the  cause  of  missions.  While  Euro- 
peans in  civil,  military  and  mercantile  life  are  often  most  help- 
ful to  the  missionary,  too  many  of  them  are  persons  of  god- 
less life,  whose  example  and  hostility  to  the  work  rank  among 
his  greatest  trials.  The  mischief  does  not  end  with  India ;  but 
in  the  ports  and  elsewhere  missionaries  are  often  ridiculed  or 
maligned,  with  the  result  that  such  superficial  travelers  as 
trouble  to  make  any  inquiries  return  home  with  scores  of 
stories  reflecting  upon  missionaries  and  their  noble  work.  A 
feeling  of  moral  responsibility  for  these  Anglo-Indians  and  for 
the  often  despised  Eurasians,  the  offspring  of  Europeans  and 
native  women,  divides  the  heart  of  earnest  workers  who  not 
infrequently  attempt  to  minister  to  them,  as  well  as  to  the 
Hindus,  with  resultant  breakdowns. 

4.  We  must  regretfully  add  that  one  section  of  the  foreign 
population,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  religion  and  often  men 
of  the  most  self-denying  life,  the  Romanists,  are  in  some  sec- 
tions a  more  serious  foe  than  any  European  or  native  opponent. 
"  The  Jesuit  advance  in  India  "  is  a  very  real  problem,  espe- 
cially in  the  Krishnagar,  Chota  Nagpore,  Sialkot  and  Tanna 
fields,  as  well  as  in  a  district  south  of  Calcutta.  It  is  not  so 
much  the  truths  taught  by  this  proselyting  force,  as  the  meth- 
ods used,  that  occasion  friction.  Well  authenticated  testimony 
shows  that  this  system  includes  buying  inquirers  or  converts 
off  with  gifts  of  food,  clothing  and  confectionery ;  the  hiring 
of  subordinate  Christian  helpers  who  have  been  working  gratis 
for  Protestantism;  providing  Saturday  night  entertainments 
for  those  who  would  attend  church  on  Sunday;  slandering 


INDIA  363 

Protestant  missionaries,  especially  those  who  are  married ;  per- 
mitting the  converts  to  observe  caste  rules  in  districts  where 
Protestants  pursue  the  opposite  policy;  loaning  natives  money 
and  when  unable  to  pay  the  debt,  offering  to  remit  it  if  they 
will  join  the  Catholic  Church,  the  debt  being  held  over  their 
heads  in  case  they  return  to  their  former  faith ;  and  encourag- 
ing Christians  to  indulge  in  vicious  and  intemperate  habits, 
and  when  under  consequent  discipline,  receiving  them  to  their 
own  Church.  When  due  allowance  is  made  for  intemperate 
and  partisan  statements,  the  facts  seem  to  prove  that  such 
proselytes  are  not  benefited  by  the  change,  but  rather  are  worse 
than  in  their  heathen  days. 

The  reasons  for  the  success  of  this  proselyting  agency  are 
found  in  Mr.  V.  N.  Narasimmiyengar's  Mysore  Census  Re- 
port of  1891  :  "  Roman  Catholicism  is  able  to  prevail  among 
Hindus  more  rapidly  and  easily  [than  Protestantism]  by  rea- 
son of  its  policy  of  tolerating  among  its  converts  the  customs  of 
caste  and  social  observances,  which  constitute  so  material  a 
part  of  the  Indian  social  fabric.  In  the  course  of  the  investi- 
gations engendered  by  the  census,  several  Roman  Christian 
communities  have  been  met  with,  which  continue  undisturbed 
in  the  rites  and  usages  which  had  guided  them  in  their  pre- 
conversion  period.  They  still  pay  worship  to  the  Kalasam 
at  marriages  and  festivals,  call  in  the  Brahman  astrologer  and 
purohita,  use  the  Hindu  religious  marks  and  conform  to 
various  other  amenities  which  have  the  advantage  of  minimiz- 
ing friction  in  their  daily  intercourse  with  their  fellow-caste 
brethren." 

5.  Local  opposition  from  Hindus  is  far  more  common  than 
Catholic  interference.  It  is  not  unusual  in  all  parts  of  India, 
especially  during  the  initiation  of  a  work,  to  be  subjected  to 
a  wearisome  variety  of  annoyances.  The  missionary  is  pre- 
vented from  finding  a  favorable  position  for  even  an  hour's 
service;  and  if  he  desires  to  remain  permanently,  it  is  with  the 
utmost  difficulty  that  he  can  secure  good  sites  for  residence, 
church,  school  and  hospital.     High  rents  are  charged  him; 


364  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

almost  impossible  conditions  are  imposed ;  titles  are  beclouded ; 
building  is  hindered,  if  not  altogether  stopped. 

In  the  case  of  natives  this  opposition  is  far  worse.  Insults, 
abuse,  breaking  up  of  meetings,  depriving  them  of  water  from 
the  village  well,  despite  the  government  regulation  forbidding 
it,  are  common  experiences  in  districts  newly  opened.  And 
what  shall  be  said  of  the  opposition  encountered  by  the  young 
convert?  If  he  is  in  his  minority,  relatives  can  do  what  they 
will  with  him,  and  even  English  law  is  often  unable  to  prevent 
his  death  or  such  serious  drugging  that  lifelong  imbecility 
may  result.  Baptism  is  the  crucial  hour  when  the  storm  clouds, 
that  have  been  gathering  ever  since  his  interest  was  evident, 
burst  like  the  monsoon  upon  his  defenceless  head,  and  God 
alone  can  save  the  convert  from  the  despair  that  follows  such 
persecution  and  the  ostracism  from  men  of  his  caste.  Of 
course  this  persecution  is  by  no  means  universal,  but  it  is  to  be 
expected  in  the  case  of  students  and  others  of  note  in  the  com- 
munity, unless  they  chance  to  be  so  high  in  position  that  they 
are  immune  from  attack. 

6.  Governments  are  a  doubtful  dependence  in  such  emer- 
gencies. While  British  law  as  administered  in  India  is  gen- 
erally very  helpful,  the  Government  is  neutral  in  religious  mat- 
ters and  does  not  afford  the  same  aid  that  would  be  available, 
if  it  were  what  it  is  in  Great  Britain.  This  neutrality  and  the 
recognition  of  certain  points  of  Mohammedan  law  abate  some- 
what the  freedom  which  converts  from  Islam  are  supposed  to 
find  under  the  aegis  of  English  protection,  though  even  with 
this  weakness  British  rule  makes  it  more  possible  for  a 
Mohammedan  to  become  a  Christian  in  India  than  elsewhere 
in  civilized  lands  except  in  China  and  the  Malay  Archipelago. 
The  chief  hardship  is  found  in  the  Native  States  where  old 
laws  still  prevail  and  where  many  a  convert  has  met  death  as 
the  punishment  for  deserting  the  faith  of  his  fathers. 

7.  A  more  vital  opposing  force  is  found  in  the  personal  char- 
acter of  the  people  of  the  Empire.  Courage  is  manifestly 
needed  to  break  with  the  past  and  with  one's  caste,  and  cow- 


INDIA  365 

ardice  is  said  by  missionaries  to  be  quite  prevalent.  Even  if 
converted,  instability  of  character  often  leads  to  a  relapse  into' 
former  habits  of  idolatry.  Immorality  is  the  atmosphere  sur- 
rounding all  in  India,  and  when  the  gratification  of  the  lower 
desires  and  appetites  receives  religious  sanction,  it  is  very  easy 
to  fall  from  the  purity  of  Christianity  into  impurity  at  the  beck 
of  the  temple  nautch  girl  or  the  siren  voices  of  prurient  sacred 
books.  Even  more  hostile  to  Christianity's  message  is  the 
power  of  "  custom  "  over  the  average  Hindu.  The  conserva- 
tism of  China  cannot  equal,  as  a  deterrent  force,  this  tyrannical 
master  of  India.  One  who  ventures  to  depart  from  it  in  vil- 
lages and  towns  that  are  unfamiliar  with  the  new  life  of  the 
Occident  is  "  peculiar  "  to  an  infinitely  greater  degree  than 
any  in  Christian  lands  who  for  this  reason  are  kept  from  show- 
ing their  colors. 

8.  The  power  of  superstition  and  religion  is  another  potent 
factor  that  must  be  reckoned  with  in  the  conversion  of  India's 
millions.  This  land  stands  foremost  among  the  great  nations 
of  the  world  in  its  devotion  to  the  gods,  and  second  to  none  of 
them  in  the  deference  shown  to  superstitions.  Missionaries 
report  that  those  features  of  the  native  religion  causing  the 
greatest  practical  difficulties  are  the  following:  Unbounded 
confidence  in  the  sacredness  and  supremacy  of  their  sacred 
books  and  religious  leaders ;  errors  as  to  the  nature  of  sin  and 
salvation,  leading  the  people  to  lay  great  stress  on  supposedly 
good  works,  especially  upon  difficult  pilgrimages ;  sincere  be- 
lief in  the  agency  of  evil  spirits  and  careful  observance  of 
signs  and  portents ;  devotion  to  Krishna  and  to  the  cultus  of 
Vishnu,  in  whose  lives  they  see  resemblances  to  the  Incarnation 
and  life  of  Jesus,  thus  denying  the  exclusive  claims  of  the 
Christian  Incarnation ;  the  Vedanta  system,  with  its  doctrine 
of  8,400,000  transmigrations,  which  seems  to  them  the  best  ex- 
planation of  life's  inequalities  —  a  belief  leading  to  fatalism ; 
and  an  all-pervasive  pantheism  that  makes  God  the  author  of 
evil  as  well  as  of  good,  destroys  responsibility  for  sin  and 
logically  makes  it  impossible,  fosters  idolatry  by  teaching  that 


366  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

God  is  within  the  idol,  and  asserts  that  any  rehgion  is  good 
enough  if  sincerely  followed. 

Among  Mohammedans  the  disbelief  in  the  Incarnation  and 
divinity  of  Christ  and  His  consequent  degradation  to  a  mere 
prophet,  the  surpassing  claims  of  Mohammed,  the  self-right- 
eousness that  exalts  works  above  the  underlying  motive,  and 
the  misinterpretation  of  Christian  doctrines  accompanied  with 
the  utmost  bigotry,  are  the  weapons  with  which  Islam's  vo- 
taries meet  the  missionary  attack.  In  the  case  of  the  educated 
who  have  seen  the  folly  of  current  beliefs  and  who  blush  be- 
fore India's  unexpurgated  sacred  books,  two  tendencies  are  to 
be  met :  one  is  that  of  universal  scepticism  which  leads  the  man 
to  agnosticism  or  utter  disgust  with  all  religion ;  the  other,  a 
desire  to  find  in  some  reform  movement  as  promulgated  by 
the  various  Samajes  an  Oriental  substitute  for  past  faith  on 
the  ground  of  its  greater  fitness  for  the  Hindu  mind. 

9.  But  the  great  upas  tree  of  India,  poisoning  the  life  and 
weakening  the  moral  sense  of  every  community,  is  caste. 
While  it  is  a  part  of  religion,  it  is  far  more  than  that,  as  was 
seen  in  Part  I.  This  and  ancestral  worship  in  China  stand  as 
the  two  greatest  existing  obstacles  to  Christian  missions,  and 
it  is  little  wonder  that  so  eminent  a  missionary  as  the  Abbe 
Dubois  despaired  of  the  higher  classes  of  India  ever  becoming 
Christians,  though  he  was  ready  to  acknowledge  that  there  was 
a  great  field  among  the  low  castes  and  outcastes.  What  this 
Romanist  regarded  as  impossible,  the  grace  of  God,  accompany- 
ing such  wise  efforts  as  those  of  Duff,  —  who  reached  India 
with  his  scheme  of  Christian  education  about  the  time  that  the 
Abbe  left  it  for  Europe,  —  has  accomplished  in  multitudes  of 
cases.  Still,  it  remains  true  that  a  vast  majority  of  the  con- 
verts are  from  the  low  castes,  and  that  even  among  these  the 
spirit  of  brotherhood  has  so  little  influenced  even  the  Protest- 
ants that  to  some  extent  and  in  one  or  two  branches  of  the 
Church  in  South  India  the  caste  spirit  and  regulations  are  re- 
garded. As  this  problem  does  not  beset  work  for  the  aborigines, 
many  missionaries  turn  to  them  with  a  sense  of  relief. 


INDIA  367 

10.  Earnest  workers  find  heavy  burdens  in  other  issues  that 
are  in  a  sense  subsidiary  to  their  regular  work.  Thus  abuses 
and  social  crimes  flourish  all  about  them  and  they  would  be 
false  to  their  trust  if  these  were  not  met.  The  well-known 
evils  of  child-marriage  and  widowhood,  the  perplexing  prob- 
lems of  polygamous  marriages  in  the  case  of  applicants  for 
church  membership,  actions  of  the  Government  such  as  licensed 
immorality  and  the  opium  trade,  and  a  number  of  other  moral 
and  social  questions  call  for  discussion  and  in  some  cases  ac- 
tive opposition. 

11.  Protestant  Forces.  —  i.  As  the  second  volume  makes 
evident,  these  are  significant  in  point  of  numbers  and  in  the 
diversity  and  extent  of  work  done.  Yet  when  the  statistics 
are  compared  with  those  of  smaller  countries,  or  of  a  continent 
like  Africa,  it  should  be  remembered  that  India's  population  is 
about  twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  Dark  Continent ;  while  its 
Mohammedans  alone  almost  equal  in  number  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  the  Ottoman  Empire  plus  that  of  South  America. 

In  comparing  the  missionary  maps,  also,  remember  that 
while  India  is  dotted  somewhat  thickly  with  mission  stations, 
the  villages  and  towns  are  more  numerous  there  than  in  any 
other  mission  land  save  China.  Thus  in  Bengal  there  are  three 
villages  or  towns  on  every  two  square  miles,  and  in  the  most 
sparsely  populated  province,  that  of  Bombay  and  Sind,  there 
is  one  town  or  village  to  every  five  square  miles.  The  reader 
will  also  learn  from  the  map  and  the  Station  Index  that  the 
Protestant  fields  first  occupied  are  those  most  fully  cared  for 
to-day.  Including  Catholics,  two-thirds  of  all  Indian  Chris- 
tians were  found  in  the  British  provinces  of  Madras  and  Coorg 
and  in  the  Madras  Native  States,  when  the  census  of  1891  was 
taken. 

2.  As  for  the  societies  represented,  America  furnishes  the 
greatest  number,  thirty- five ;  England  has  thirty- four,  the  Con- 
tinent, nine,  while  international  societies  and  missions  from 
other  lands  number  fifteen.  For  details  concerning  all  these 
societies  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  second  volume  of  this 


368  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

work.  Note  especially  the  relative  proportion  of  men  and 
women,  both  among  the  missionaries  and  the  native  assistants. 
Concerning  the  latter,  Sir  William  Hunter  in  his  admirable 
work,  "The  Indian  Empire,"  writes:  "Between  1851  and 
1890  the  number  of  mission  stations  increased  threefold;  while 
the  number  of  native  Protestant  Christians  has  multiplied  by 
more  than  fivefold,  the  number  of  communicants  by  nearly  fif- 
teenfold,  and  the  number  of  churches  or  congregations  by  six- 
teenfold.-  This  was  largely  due  to  the  extended  employment 
of  native  agency  in  the  work.  The  native  ordained  pastors  in- 
creased from  twenty-one  in  1851  to  797  in  1890,  and  the  native 
lay  preachers  from  493  to  3,491.  The  Protestant  Church  in 
India  greatly  gained  in  strength  by  making  freer  use  of,  and 
reposing  a  more  generous  confidence  in,  its  native  agents." 
At  the  Newcastle  Church  Congress  of  1900  the  late  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bengal,  Sir  Charles  Elliott,  not  only  endorsed  all 
that  is  said  above,  but  urged  the  Church  to  crown  its  work  of 
organization  by  the  appointment  of  native  Bishops,  basing  his 
argument  on  the  experience  of  the  civil  administration  in  India. 
He  says :  "  I  was  the  first  Governor  of  a  province  who  ap- 
pointed a  native  to  be  a  commissioner  of  a  division  with  Eng- 
lish magistrates  under  him,  but  no  one  caviled  at  the  justice 
and  wisdom  of  the  selection.  On  the  contrary  the  men  thus 
promoted  have  risen  to  the  height  of  their  position,  their  self- 
respect  has  been  aroused  and  with  it  the  self-respect  of  the 
community  to  which  they  belong,  and  new  qualities  have  been 
evolved  in  them.  I  believe  that  if  our  Bishops  would  take 
courage  in  both  hands  and  imitate  the  example  of  the  Civil 
Government,  it  would  be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  native  clergy 
and  converts,  and  the  result  would  not  be  disappointing."  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  has  within  a  few  months  definitely 
lecommended  such  a  course  as  Sir  Charles  advocates.  These 
opinions  are  cited  to  emphasize  the  power  resident  in  a  portion 
of  the  missionary  force  which  is  often  wholly  unappreciated 
by  the  reader. 

3.  The  new  emphasis  of  the  true    missionary    dynamic,  a 


INDIA  369 

greater  fulness  of  spiritual  life,  cannot  be  omitted  in  any 
enumeration  of  Protestant  forces,  especially  as  workers  in  this 
field  realize  the  importance  of  such  enduement  as  do  those  in 
no  other  perhaps.  During  the  last  six  years  there  has  been 
much  individual  desire  for  divine  power,  and  this  longing  has 
led  to  meetings  of  missionaries  in  small  groups  and  occasion- 
ally in  national  conferences,  the  main  or  sole  object  of  which 
has  been  to  deepen  the  spiritual  life.  In  the  case  of  many  mis- 
sionaries the  old  thirtyfold  measure  of  fruitfulness  has  given 
place  to  an  abiding  joy  in  the  Lord  and  capacity  to  bring  forth 
fruit  an  hundredfold. 

Nor  should  reference  to  outside  increments  to  the  mission- 
ary ranks,  provided  by  the  increasingly  frequent  visits  of  prom- 
inent religious  leaders  from  the  Occident,  be  omitted  in  a  cen- 
sus of  forces.  This  contingent  includes  such  evangelists  as 
Dr.  Pentecost  and  Rev.  F.  B.  Meyer ;  students  of  religion  and 
philosophy  like  Professor  Ladd,  President  Barrows  and  Prin- 
cipal Fairbairn ;  and  practical  leaders  of  men,  of  whom  John  R. 
Mott,  Secretary  of  the  World's  Student  Christian  Federation, 
and  Dr.  Clark,  founder  of  the  Christian  Endeavor  Movement, 
are  types.  The  exceeding  value  of  their  labors  to  India  is  an 
indication  of  the  possibilities  in  all  the  great  mission  fields  of 
such  special  service. 

III.  Classes  Ministered  to.  —  As  these  differ,  not  merely 
in  condition,  but  also  in  the  methods  employed  to  reach  them, 
they  will  be  mentioned  separately. 

I.  Children  are  a  strategic  element  in  society,  not  only  be- 
cause of  the  greater  ease  of  reaching  them,  but  also  for  the 
reason  that,  as  ethnologists  have  shown,  children  of  lower 
races  or  castes  do  not  differ  greatly  in  receptivity  from  those 
in  civilized  lands,  while  after  adolescence  they  relapse  into  a 
stupidity  that  makes  impression  difficult.  Moreover,  the  de- 
structive work  needing  to  be  done  at  that  period  is  far  less  than 
in  adult  life.  Day-schools  for  boys  and  girls,  either  coeduca- 
tional or  separate,  are  the  commonest  line  of  approach.  Ver- 
nacular instruction  seems  to  be  best  except  where  the  better 


370  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

classes  are  aimed  at,  in  which  case  EngUsh  is  an  attraction. 
Though  difficulties  are  experienced  in  this  work,  notably  in  the 
direction  of  securing  teachers  with  proper  spiritual  and  educa- 
tional qualifications,  they  are  gradually  disappearing,  and  the 
leavening  influence  upon  the  heathen  homes  of  the  children, 
as  well  as  upon  their  own  lives,  is  of  great  value.  Sunday- 
schools  are  far  more  helpful,  especially  in  cases  where  Moham- 
medan and  Hindu  children  are  afraid  of  places  of  Christian 
worship.  They  can  be  won  by  taking  the  school  to  them  as  is 
sometimes  done  —  going  into  a  company  of  boys  and  girls  and 
marking  out  parallel  lines  on  the  ground  with  aisles  appro- 
priately placed,  thus  enabling  the  children  to  be  seated  in  an 
orderly  way.  The  lively  singing  and  other  exercises  so  attract 
them  that  the  Sunday-school  idea  soon  takes  root.  The  use 
of  Scripture  cards  helps  to  overcome  prejudice,  and  they  are 
prized  in  the  homes  as  well.  The  labors  of  the  late  Rev.  J. 
L.  Phillips,  Secretary  of  the  India  Sunday-school  Union,  and 
of  his  successor.  Rev.  R.  Burges,  have  greatly  increased  the  ef- 
ficiency of  this  most  important  agency. 

2.  The  zvomen  of  India  are  among  the  most  needy  in  all 
the  world,  as  the  various  volumes  treating  of  their  wrongs 
abundantly  show.  In  wealthy  homes  the  only  way  of  reach- 
ing these  prisoners  of  the  zenana  is  through  the  ministry  of 
medicine,  —  especially  if  the  practitioner  is  a  lady,  —  and  by 
means  of  zenana  teaching.  The  occupants  of  these  better 
homes  are  more  to  be  pitied  than  those  in  the  hovels  of  the  poor. 
Shut  in  for  months  or  years  from  the  outside  world,  with  po- 
lygamy to  cause  endless  pain,  these  women  and  girls  look  upon 
the  zenana  worker  as  an  angel  from  heaven  oftentimes.  Many 
of  them  prove  apt  pupils  and  not  a  few  become  obedient  to  the 
truth.  If  Dr.  Mullen's  advice  to  use  caution  without  compro- 
mise is  heeded,  even  the  most  suspicious  may  become  willing 
learners.  This  form  of  work  relieves  the  missionary  from  the 
tedium  of  ordinary  Hindu  visits,  and  with  the  attraction  of 
teaching  fancy  work  homes  of  men  of  wealth  and  position  are 
often  opened.     Among  poor  women,  meetings  are  easily  ar- 


INDIA  371 

ranged  for,  especially  where  competent  Bible  women  are  em- 
ployed as  intermediaries.  Miss  Greenfield  strongly  appeals 
for  this  latter  work :  "  Go  out  to  the  poor  outcastes  and  tell 
them  of  a  Burden-bearer  for  them.  Go  out  into  the  villages, 
and  as  the  women  flock  around  you,  tell  them  in  song  and 
speech  of  the  love  of  Jesus.  Go  out  into  the  melas  and  fes- 
tivals and  lay  hold  of  the  women  there,  and  tell  them  of  the 
water  of  life  and  the  blood  of  Christ  that  can  cleanse  their  pol- 
luted hearts."  Though  her  plan  of  having  women  go  forth  by 
twos  on  evangelistic  tours  is  still  in  its  infancy,  it  has  been 
greatly  blessed. 

3.  The  aboriginal  tribes,  most  of  whom  are  in  the  Native 
States,  at  first  sight  present  a  discouraging  field  of  labor. 
Thus  the  hillmen  of  Madras  include  the  wild-looking  Puliyars 
who  worship  devils  and  subsist  upon  jungle  products,  mice, 
etc. ;  the  Mundaver  nomads  who  shelter  themselves  in  caves 
and  leaf  sheds ;  the  old  military  race,  the  Nairs,  among  whom 
one  woman  is  the  wife  of  several  husbands  and  the  property 
descends  to  the  sister's  children.  If  one  goes  into  the  Vindhya 
Range,  he  must  be  ready  to  follow  the  Bhils  as  "  they  move 
about  with  their  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  through  the  jungly 
highlands  and  eke  out  a  spare  livelihood  by  the  chase  and  the 
natural  products  of  the  forest,"  or  dwell  in  little  hamlets,  "  each 
homestead  being  built  on  a  separate  hillock  so  as  to  render  it 
impossible  for  their  enemies  to  surprise  a  whole  village  at 
once."  In  the  Central  Provinces  the  Gonds  have  made  some 
advances  in  civilization ;  but  what  a  huntsman  the  missionary 
must  be  to  catch  a  Mari,  who  is  so  shy  that  even  the  messenger 
of  the  local  Raja  can  secure  rightful  tribute  only  by  beating 
a  drum  outside  the  hamlet  and  then  withdrawing  while  the 
timorous  villager  creeps  forth  and  places  the  tribute  in  the  ap- 
pointed place,  only  to  run  back  to  his  place  of  hiding.  The 
leaf- wearers  of  Orissa ;  the  Assam  hillmen  who  have  no  word 
for  mile,  but  measure  distances  by  the  number  of  plugs  of 
tobacco  or  of  betel-leaf  chewed  upon  the  journey,  and  two  of 
whose  clans  bear  the  suggestive  names  of  "  The  eaters  of  a 


372  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

thousand  hearths  "  and  "  The  thieves  who  lurk  in  the  cotton 
field  " ;  the  more  advanced  Santals ;  the  100,000  Kandhs,  or 
Kondhs,  with  their  purely  patriarchal  form  of  government, 
marriage  by  capture  and  system  of  serfdom;  the  three  non- 
Aryan  stocks,  the  Tibeto-Burmans,  the  Kolarians  and  the 
Dravidians  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  —  all  of 
these  tribes  have  peculiar  traits  or  customs  that  are  barriers  to 
missionary  effort. 

Despite  these  facts,  the  aboriginal  and  non-Aryan  races  are 
far  easier  of  approach  in  many  respects  than  the  Hindus  proper. 
Caste  has  little  or  no  power  among  them ;  they  do  not  meet 
with  anything  like  the  opposition  that  Hindus  encounter  when 
they  try  to  raise  themselves ;  not  having  merged  the  individual 
into  the  family  or  caste,  they  are  less  hampered  in  judging  as 
to  the  path  of  duty ;  and  when  they  decide  to  become  Chris- 
tians they  do  not  labor  under  the  social  disabilities  of  Hindu- 
ism. 

4.  The  outcastes,  or  lozv  caste  peoples,  who  form  the  main 
missionary  constituency,  are  rightly  denominated  "  the  de- 
pressed classes,"  though  the  phrase  sometimes  includes  the  ab- 
origines also.  Very  many  of  them  are  shoemakers,  scaven- 
gers, coolies  and  village  watchmen,  though  multitudes  are 
farmers  and  weavers.  In  general  they  are  poor  and  in  many 
instances  are  in  such  abject  circumstances  that  they  are  little 
better  than  slaves.  Apart  from  the  missionary  efforts,  they 
have  never  been  educated,  few  of  them  being  able  to  even  read 
and  write. 

In  proportion  to  the  degradation  of  these  unfortunates  are 
they  more  accessible  to  the  missionary,  the  reasons  therefor  be- 
ing thus  stated  by  the  late  Bishop  Parker :  "  Their  religion  is 
not,  as  a  rule,  the  orthodox  Hinduism,  but  some  side-issue  that 
is  much  less  firmly  established  and  tenaciously  held,  and  hence 
has  no  such  strong  hold  on  the  people  as  Hinduism  has  upon 
the  regular  castes.  It  is  accordingly  not  so  difficult  to  change 
their  religion.  They  have  not  the  pride  of  caste  that  raises 
them  in  their  own  estimation  above  all  other  people,  and  they 


INDIA  373 

readily  receive  the  Christian  teachers.  Besides,  whatever  is 
done  for  these  poor  people  is  usually  considered  as  a  kindness 
—  a  favor,  and  it  is  seldom  resented.  Many  of  them  have  an 
idea  of  *  moving  on.'  In  many  places  they  have  broken  away 
from  their  old  traditions  to  some  extent  and  are  doing  work 
that  their  fathers  did  not  think  of  ever  attaining.  Being  thus 
willing  to  rise,  they  will  take  hold  of  those  who  may  seem  able 
to  aid  them ;  hence  the  way  is  open  to  teach  and  lead  them." 

The  methods  employed  among  these  people  are  much  the 
same  as  in  all  mission  work  in  India,  though  for  the  masses 
evangelistic  work  and  lower  schools  are  especially  empha- 
sized. In  the  field  which  is  yielding  such  large  results  in 
North  India,  the  Methodists  are  successfully  employing  a 
Christian  mela,  at  which  as  many  as  2,000  Christians  come 
together  in  a  modified  camp  meeting.  Simple  organizations, 
like  the  Christian  Endeavor  Society  and  the  Epworth  League, 
seem  fitted  to  increase  the  activity  as  well  as  deepen  the  spir- 
itual life  of  the  members.  So  important  has  this  work  seemed, 
that  the  former  organization  sent  out  in  1901  as  a  permanent 
Secretary  of  the  Society,  Rev.  F.  S.  Hatch,  a  prominent  Amer- 
ican Endeavorer.  Social  improvement,  industrial  training, 
cleanliness  and  better  sanitation,  and  agitation  looking  toward 
the  actual  removal  of  existing  disabilities,  are  externals  that 
missionaries  keep  constantly  in  mind. 

5.  The  importance  of  zvork  for  the  two  classes  just  men- 
tioned is  manifest.  Civilians  are  as  fully  aware  of  this  as  are 
the  missionaries.  Witness  this  extract  from  the  high  author- 
ity already  quoted.  Sir  William  Hunter :  "  I  should  not  be 
candid,  if  I  left  the  impression  that  I  expect,  even  with  the  im- 
proved missionary  methods,  any  large  accessions  from  ortho- 
dox Hinduism  or  Islam  to  the  Christian  Church.  It  is  rather 
from  the  lower  castes  and  the  so-called  aboriginal  peoples,  that 
I  believe  direct  conversions  will  chiefly  come.  At  this  mo- 
ment there  are  fifty  millions  of  human  beings  in  India,  sitting 
abject  on  the  outskirts  of  Hinduism  or  beyond  its  pale,  who, 
within  the  next  fifty  years,  will  incorporate  themselves  into 


374  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

one  or  other  of  the  higher  faiths.  Speaking  humanly,  it  rests 
with  Christian  missionaries  in  India,  whether  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  these  fifty  miUions  shall  accept  Christianity  or  Hin- 
duism or  Islam." 

Its  great  success  is  an  additional  argument  in  favor  of  fur- 
thering work  for  the  depressed  classes,  not  to  speak  of  the  fun- 
damental obligations  of  human  brotherhood  and  the  almost 
unbroken  order  of  the  Kingdom,  "  to  the  poor  the  gospel  is 
preached."  Nearly  all  the  great  ingatherings  of  the  Empire 
have  been  among  the  lower  or  lowest  castes;  and  with  such 
evidences  of  power  as  have  been  witnessed  in  the  Tinnevelli 
and  Telugu  fields  of  South  India  and  in  the  no  less  wonderful 
Pentecosts  of  the  North,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
now,  as  in  Apostolic  times,  God  has  chosen  the  foolish  and 
weak  and  base  things  to  confound  wise  and  mighty  adversa- 
ries. 

6.  Next  to  these  low  castes  stand  Eurasians,  the  outcastes 
among  Occidentals.  As  they  are  often  in  care  of  their  native 
mothers  during  early  years,  they  are  frequently  little  better 
than  heathen.  Speaking  of  them  and  immoral  Europeans 
whose  offspring  they  are.  Sir  Andrew  Scoble  raised  this  note 
of  warning :  "  Let  me  tell  you  that  if,  while  sending  mission- 
aries to  the  heathen  for  the  purpose  of  preaching  the  gospel 
to  them,  you  are  neglecting  the  claims  of  the  Europeans  and 
Eurasians  in  that  country,  you  create  a  class  of  missionaries 
who  do  infinitely  more  harm  to  God's  Church  than  all  the 
heathen  together  can  do;  because  every  European  and  every 
Eurasian  who  neglects  his  duty  as  a  Christian,  becomes  an 
evil  to  the  people  around  him."  Aside  from  the  low  estima- 
tion in  which  they  are  held,  there  are  other  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  their  evangelization.  In  the  cities  they  are  often  pau- 
pers, —  22.3  per  cent,  of  them  according  to  the  Calcutta 
Pauperism  Committee's  report,  —  and  are  so  low  in  the  social 
scale  that  it  is  hard  to  raise  them  from  their  semi-heathenism. 

The  means  used  to  win  Eurasians  are  similar  to  those  em- 
ployed to  reach  the  lower  classes  in  our  cities,  with  slight  dif- 


INDIA  375 

ferences.  The  children  are  the  best  material  and  school  work 
for  them  is  especially  valued.  Owing  to  their  poverty,  they 
cannot  meet  the  expense  of  English  schools  and  hence  often 
attend  Catholic  institutions.  The  Roman  Church  thus  adds  to 
her  strength,  while  Protestantism  loses  those  who  have  proven 
their  ability  to  become  excellent  missionaries  to  their  fellow- 
townsmen. 

7.  The  Mohammedans  of  India  are  mainly  found  in  the 
northeastern  and  northwestern  portions  of  the  Empire,  though 
about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  number  are  scattered  through- 
out other  sections  of  the  country.  They  are  the  most  ag- 
gressive missionary  race  of  modern  India.  Professor  Ar- 
nold of  the  Mohammedan  Anglo-Oriental  College  quotes 
estimates  ranging  from  10,000  to  600,000,  of  the  annual 
number  of  converts  thus  won.  This  work  is  mainly  car- 
ried on  by  the  Wahabi  reformers  who  have  gone  through 
northern  India  "  purging  out  the  remnants  of  Hindu  su- 
perstitions, awakening  religious  zeal  and  spreading  the  faith 
among  unbelievers."  They  have  adopted  Protestant  meth- 
ods, such  as  street  preaching,  tract  distribution  and  other  agen- 
cies. They  direct  much  of  their  attention  "  towards  counter- 
acting the  anti-Islamic  tendencies  of  the  instruction  given  by 
Christian  missionaries,  and  the  efforts  made  are  thus  defensive 
rather  than  directly  proselyting.  Some  preachers,  too,  turn 
their  attention  to  the  strengthening  of  the  foundation  already 
laid,  and  endeavor  to  rid  their  ignorant  coreligionists  of  their 
Hindu  superstitions  and  instil  in  them  a  purer  form  of  faith. 
The  influence  of  Christian  mission  schools  has  been  very  great 
in  stimulating  among  some  Mohammedans  of  the  younger  gen- 
eration a  study  of  their  own  religion  and  in  bringing  about  a 
consequent  awakening  of  religious  zeal." 

The  fountainhead  of  orthodox  Indian  Mohammedanism  is 
the  Arabic  College  at  Deohand,  ranking  with  the  so-called  Uni- 
versity of  Al  Azhar  in  Cairo,  with  the  one  connected  with  the 
Mosque  of  Palms  in  Tunis  and  with  the  institution  at  Kair- 
wan,  the  holy  city  of  Fez.    This  college  is  "  not  meant  in  any 


376  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

way  to  fit  men  for  the  world's  work ;  its  aim  is  purely  relig- 
ious. The  Koran  and  Hadis  and  all  that  has  sprung  up  around 
them  alone  constitute  true  knowledge.  The  revelation  of  God 
is  as  all-embracing  as  it  is  final  and  fixed.  It  is  a  waste  of  life 
and  perilous  to  a  man's  eternal  interests  to  give  heed  to  the 
new-fangled  notions  and  latter-day  knowledge  which  make  up 
modern  education.  .  .  .  Since  its  institution,  the  college 
has  turned  out  some  383  maulvies  and  93  hafizes  of  the  Koran. 
It  has  attained  great  celebrity  and  will  be  a  force  to  be  reck- 
oned with."  Notwithstanding  these  evidences  of  life,  St. 
Clair-Tisdall  asserts :  "  It  cannot  be  said  that  at  the  present 
day  in  India  the  Mohammedans  are  superior  or  even  equal  to 
the  Hindus  in  morality,  industry,  or  culture.  In  fact  the  Gov- 
ernment of  India  finds  it  necessary  to  show  special  encour- 
agement to  Mohammedan  youths,  in  order  to  prevent  Hindus 
from  filling  almost  every  post  of  importance  under  Govern- 
ment. But  their  number  and  their  fanaticism  for  their  relig- 
ion render  the  Mohammedans  an  important  factor  in  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  country." 

Despite  these  facts,  Christian  missionaries  have  made  much 
progress  in  winning  Indian  Moslems.  At  the  World's  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions  in  1893,  i"  ^  paper  prepared  by  the  late  Dr. 
Imad-ud  Din,  a  list  of  117  notable  converts  was  given,  the 
learned  writer  being  the  most  famous  perhaps.  Controversy 
and  literature  are  characteristics  of  work  among  these  peoples. 
In  the  Punjab  in  1894-95  the  deepest  interest  was  awakened 
by  a  notable  discussion,  which  was  to  be  supernaturally  de- 
cided —  the  leading  Moslem  advocate  prophesied  —  by  the 
death  of  his  opponent  within  fifteen  days,  corresponding  with 
the  length  of  time  devoted  to  the  disputation.  As  death  did 
not  occur,  Mohammedanism  received  a  serious  blow  and  in 
that  city  one  missionary  alone  baptized  thirty-two  Moslems 
within  less  than  five  years  thereafter.  A  most  potent  force 
used  by  the  workers  is  a  translation  of  the  Koran,  made  for  the 
first  time  into  idiomatic  Urdu  by  Dr.  Imad-ud  Din.  The  ef- 
fect of  divesting  this  unholy  volume  of  its  concealing  Arabic 


INDIA  377 

veil  may  be  guessed  from  the  fact  that  two  Mohammedan 
writers  who  aided  in  preparing  the  book  for  the  press  revolted 
from  Islam  in  consequence.  Hardly  second  to  this  and  other 
original  volumes  by  the  same  author,  are  works  by  such  protag- 
onists as  Dr.  Pfander,  and  Sir  William  Muir,  and  the  Syrian 
Christian  who  wrote  "  Sweet  First  Fruits  "  and  the  "  Beacon 
of  Truth."  Concerning  this  last  book  a  distinguished  Mo- 
hammedan has  recently  said  that  no  one  in  the  Moslem  world 
was  able  to  answer  its  positions.  The  advantage  gained  from 
such  books  lies  in  the  fact  that  "  a  written  argument  appeals 
to  the  mind  and  conscience  in  solitude.  There  is  no  pride  in 
answering  back  glibly  or  irreverently  to  a  printed  page.  If 
prejudice  prevents  preaching  by  word  of  mouth,  let  us  use  the 
press  and  speak  to  the  eye;  if  fanaticism  shuts  the  door  of 
the  mosque,  let  us  use  the  door  of  the  post-office."  A  prom- 
inent worker  among  them,  Dr.  Wherry,  writes  of  the  method 
of  distributing  this  literature :  "  It  does  seem  like  an  imper- 
tinence, if  not  an  insult,  to  ask  a  man  to  buy  such  a  book.  A 
better  plan  is  to  send  it  as  a  present,  either  by  a  messenger  or 
through  the  post-office,  always  accompanying  it  with  a  kindly 
letter  duly  signed  by  the  sender.  Sometimes  it  is  wise  to  loan 
books  rather  than  to  sell  or  give  them  away.  The  return  of  the 
books  will  always  afford  an  opportunity  for  conversation  on 
the  subject  nearest  the  heart." 

8.  There  is  comparatively  little  being  done  for  the  great  re- 
ligious leaders  of  India,  the  Brahmans.  Granting  that  their 
influence,  which  has  moulded  the  entire  Indian  community  and 
fashioned  its  thought  in  the  past,  is  slightly  waning  to-day, 
there  is  still  unbounded  power  resident  in  these  men.  Though 
comparatively  few  have  been  won  for  Jesus  Christ,  they  have 
powerfully  aided  Christianity.  Probably  the  Brahmans  who 
were  converted  under  the  labors  of  Alexander  Duff  accom- 
plished many  times  more  for  the  evangelization  of  India  than 
any  equal  number  of  representatives  of  other  castes.  What 
nobler  names  grace  the  roll  of  the  native  Church  than  that  of 
the  converted  Brahman,  Dr.  K.  M.  Bannerji,  one  of  modern 


378  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

India's  greatest  and  most  original  scholars,  or  of  the  brilliant 
orator,  Babu  Kali  Churn  Bannerji,  or  of  Dr.  Nehemiah 
Goreh,  whom  Max  Miiller  called  a  real  philosopher,  the  father 
of  the  authoress  of  the  hymn,  "  In  the  Secret  of  His  Pres- 
ence "  ?  As  the  surest  way  of  reaching  the  younger  Brahmans 
is  through  education,  nothing  further  is  said  of  this  work  here. 
Readers  desirous  to  learn  how  these  men  are  won  through 
private  interviews  or  in  public  controversy,  are  referred  to  the 
pages  of  "  The  Indian  Missionary  Manual,"  by  the  veteran, 
Dr.  John  Murdoch. 

9.  How  important  it  is  in  Christian  lands  to  reach  relig- 
iously the  educated  classes,  is  evidenced  by  the  1901  edition  of 
"Who's  Who  in  America."  Of  the  11,551  best  known  men 
and  women  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  mentioned  in 
that  publication,  8,141  furnished  educational  data,  from  which 
it  appears  that  a  trifle  more  than  seven  out  of  ten  are  colle- 
gians. If  higher  education  is  so  dynamic  a  factor  in  lands 
where  the  average  grade  and  intelligence  of  the  masses  are 
so  high,  what  must  be  the  importance  of  winning  the  student 
class  in  an  Empire  of  which  the  Rev.  W.  Miller,  LL.D.,  of 
Madras,  says :  "  True  as  is  the  fact  that  educated  and  trained 
men  the  world  around  determine  to  a  large  extent  what  all 
other  classes  think  and  feel  and  are,  there  has  probably  never 
been  a  country  in  which  it  is  so  largely  and  plainly  true  as  in 
India." 

The  1901  "  Statesman's  Year-book "  gives  the  following 
facts  concerning  Indian  education:  Number  of  educational  in- 
stitutions, March  31,  1899,  149,948,  of  which  65,650  are  private 
and  unaided;  scholars  under  instruction,  4,357,821;  number 
of  colleges  for  men,  164,  with  20,842  students;  women's  col- 
leges, 5,  with  164  students;  students  in  the  five  great  uni- 
versities in  1898,  6,997.  Details  of  the  1901  census  have  not 
been  received;  yet  from  the  tables  for  1891  in  Sir  William 
Hunter's  "  Indian  Empire  "  some  significant  facts  appear  con- 
cerning the  proportion  of  Hindus,  Mohammedans  and  Chris- 
tians who  are  under  instruction  or  literate.     Of  the  Hindu  pop- 


INDIA  379 

ulation  they  constituted  eleven  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  four 
out  of  every  thousand  of  the  females;  seven  per  cent,  of  the 
male  Mohammedans  and  three  out  of  every  ten  thousand  of 
their  females  were  under  instruction  or  literate;  while  among 
the  Christians  they  included  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the  males 
and  seventeen  per  cent,  of  the  females.  This  startling  contrast 
between  Christianity  and  the  two  most  numerous  of  Indian  re- 
ligions in  the  matter  of  literacy  shows  the  importance,  not  only 
of  education  for  the  masses,  but  also  of  still  further  cultivating 
the  educated  leaders  of  the  Empire. 

The  students  and  graduates,  known  as  young  India,  or  New 
India,  are  the  product  of  two  sources,  government  institutions 
and  missionary  schools  and  colleges.  "  Thousands  of  young 
men  pass  yearly  from  the  former  with  their  religious  beliefs 
severely  shaken,  with  the  reasoning  and  critical  faculty  highly 
cultivated,  but  with  the  conscience  and  the  will  comparatively 
untrained ;  while  a  similar  number  pass  from  the  daily  instruc- 
tion and  atmosphere  of  missionary  institutions  with  sympathies 
and  convictions  set,  in  many  instances,  in  a  Christian  direction. 
Both  these  classes  need  to  be  followed  up  by  organized  evan- 
gelistic effort  which  shall,  in  the  one  case,  overtake  a  purely 
secular  teaching  with  spiritual  instruction,  and,  in  the  other,  so 
till  the  quickened  soil  that  the  good  seed,  already  sown,  may 
become  fruitful."  Their  numbers  and  wide  diffusion,  their  in- 
fluence as  leaders  of  society  and  of  public  opinion  as  well  as 
in  reform,  their  need  of  the  gospel  in  most  cases,  enforce  the 
Church's  responsibility  for  reaching  them.  Moreover,  the 
bearing  of  their  evangelization  upon  the  Indian  Church  is  most 
intimate  and  vital,  as  what  the  Empire  needs  fully  as  much  as 
it  does  reinforcements  from  without  is  an  efficient  force  from 
within. 

The  religious  attitude  of  these  students  and  graduates  varies 
with  the  institution  in  which  they  have  been  educated.  Al- 
most always  they  pass  through  the  stage  of  religious  unsettle- 
ment.  All  shades  of  religious  thought,  indigenous  and  exotic, 
as  well  as  all  the  atheistic  and  agnostic  views  of  the  Occident, 


380  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Struggle  for  the  mastery.  Brahmoism  and  the  vision  of  a 
purified  Hinduism  make  their  seductive  appeal,  enforced  by 
the  movings  of  a  latent  nationalism.  On  the  other  hand, 
Christianity  warms  them  in  its  blissful  sunshine,  or  repels  them 
by  its  inherent  demands  or  by  the  ungodly  lives  of  representa- 
tives of  Christianity.  As  if  this  were  not  enough,  these  young 
men  are  sorely  tempted.  The  fires  of  passion  are  fed  by 
temple  precincts  even  more  than  by  the  Sodom  in  which  they 
live.  Ambition  for  government  position  stifles  the  desire  to 
take  time  for  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  other  courses  which 
would  make  them  stronger  men  and  fit  them  for  highest  min- 
istry to  their  fellows. 

JVJiat  can  the  missionary  do  to  rescue  New  India  from  the 
awful  maelstrom  which  threatens  speedy  ruin?  Undoubtedly 
the  English  language  must  be  the  medium  of  approach  for 
most.  Sympathy  and  wise  and  candid  dealing  must  charac- 
terize all  the  work  done.  Classes  for  Bible  study,  public  lec- 
tures for  larger  groups,  helpful  literature  specially  prepared 
for  them,  unions  of  various  sorts,  have  all  been  largely  used  to 
gain  these  men,  though  best  of  all  are  the  heart-to-heart  talks 
that  are  the  privilege  of  successful  workers  with  India's  Nico- 
demuses.  Some  of  the  special  work  of  the  Oxford  Mission 
in  Calcutta  and  of  the  Cambridge  Mission  at  Delhi,  and  the 
wider  program  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  at 
the  great  centers,  are  found  particularly  fruitful  in  this  enter- 
prise. The  intensive  work  which  may  be  done  by  professors 
and  teachers  in  government  institutions  and  especially  in  those 
under  mission  care,  where  more  freedom  is  possible,  is  perhaps 
the  most  uniformly  crowned  with  success. 

IV.  The  Product  of  Protestant  Missions.  —  Always 
premising  that  missionaries  are  only  the  lesser  members  of  that 
synergism  whose  dynamic  factor  is  the  Triune  God,  some 
facts  may  be  mentioned  concerning  the  Christians  and  churches 
of  this  great  field.  The  strength  of  Indian  Christians  has  been 
well  shown  in  various  apologies  written  by  missionaries,  but 
perhaps  more  forcefully  in  articles  written  by  that  brilliant 


INDIA  381 

native  professor  of  Logic  and  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  Presi- 
dency College,  Madras,  S.  Sattianadhan,  and  in  the  first  vol- 
ume of  a  native  work  by  S.  Modak,  the  "  Directory  of  Protes- 
tant Indian  Christians." 

I.  They  are  strong  numerically,  though  in  proportion  to 
the  entire  population  they  are  still  wofully  few.  The  encourag- 
ing feature  in  the  matter  of  numbers  is  the  increase  perceived 
by  a  comparison  of  figures  in  successive  decades.  Professor 
Sattianadhan  gives  this  table  of  Protestant  statistics,  to  which 
we  have  added  data  for  1900.  Inclusion  of  women  accounts 
for  the  great  increase  of  missionaries  in  1900. 


Foreign 

Ordained 

Native 

Commu- 

Year. 

Missionaries. 

Natives 

Christians. 

nicants. 

PupUs. 

1 85 1 

339 

21 

91,092 

14,661 

64,043 

1861 

479 

97 

138,731 

24,816 

75.995 

1871 

488 

225 

224,258 

182,722 

122,132 

1881 

586 

461 

417,372 

"3,325 

187,652 

1890 

857 

797 

559,651 

182,722 

279,716 

1900 

3.836 

— 

591,310 

376,617 

342,114 

In  1890  sixty-six  per  cent,  of  the  Protestants  lived  in  the  Ma- 
dras Presidency,  nineteen  per  cent,  in  Bengal,  and  fifteen  per- 
cent, in  the  remainder  of  India.  If  the  percentage  of  increase 
during  the  next  decade  equals  that  of  the  last  one,  1910  will 
see  a  Protestant  Christian  community  of  1,258,305. 

2.  That  they  are  intellectually  strong  in  comparison  with 
the  majority  of  the  population  is  evidenced  by  statistics  of 
education  previously  given.  An  address  by  an  eminent  civil- 
ian, delivered  before  the  National  Indian  Association  in  Lon- 
don pays  this  tribute  to  the  missionary's  emphasis  of  female 
education :  "  The  missionaries  have  been  the  pioneers  of  all 
education  in  India  —  of  education  for  the  highest  as  for  the 
lowest  classes,  and  especially  for  the  women  of  India.  The 
result  is  now  becoming  apparent.  A  generation  of  educated 
Indian  women,  few  in  numbers  at  present,  but  full  of  promise 
for  the  future,  has  grown  up.  You  will  find  that  almost  all 
those  educated  women  of  India  who  have  made  their  mark 


382  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

in  our  day  were  native  Christians,  or  were  educated  under 
missionary  influence." 

3.  Professor  Sattianadhan  says  of  the  social  condition  of 
church  members:  "  It  is  to  a  great  extent  free  from  the  social 
drawbacks  under  which  the  Hindu  community  labors.  The 
Indian  Christians  have  ceased  to  be  restrained  by  tyrannical 
social  customs  and  caste  prejudices.  '  It  is  the  gospel  of 
Christ,'  says  the  Rev.  T.  E.  Slater,  a  veteran  missionary,  '  that 
has  made  them  free.  The  absence  among  them  of  that  great 
social  evil,  the  early  marriage  system,  and  the  increasing  num- 
ber of  intelligent  wives  and  mothers,  largely  account  for  their 
present  position.  Unlike  Hindus,  whose  religious  existence  is 
one  series  of  expensive  ceremonies  from  birth  to  death,  they 
have  no  burdensome  rites  to  perform  and  learn  to  practice  econ- 
omy in  weddings  and  funerals.  Hinduism  drains  the  purse 
and  exhausts  the  time  and  strength  of  its  votaries.  The  mo- 
ment a  Hindu  becomes  a  Christian,  he  leaves  the  land  of  sla- 
very and  breathes  the  air  of  liberty.  One  has  only  to  com- 
pare the  Christian  with  Hindvi  homes  to  be  assured  that  it  is  the 
leaven  of  Christ's  religion  that  can  alone  quicken  the  inert 
mass  of  Hindu  society.'  "  Charges  of  denationalization  are 
not  true  of  the  majority  of  converts,  though  it  is  inevitable  that 
this  change  should  lead  to  persecution  and  separation  from  for- 
mer friends ;  since,  "  in  the  eyes  of  a  Hindu,  nothing  is  more 
degrading  than  one  of  his  own  kith  and  kin  becoming  a  Chris- 
tian." Naturally,  also,  these  converts  strive  after  Western 
ideals,  and  turn  their  back  upon  the  tyrannical  past  of  their 
idolatrous  countrymen. 

4.  If  the  moral  condition  of  native  Christians  is  inquired 
into,  the  results  will  be  found  very  favorable.  A  native  jour- 
nal, often  hostile  to  them,  the  "  Pioneer,"  says  on  this  point : 
"  As  the  community  has  developed,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  its  aspirations  in  the  direction  of  purity  of  life  and  morals 
have  been  to  a  large  extent  realized.  Industry  has  developed 
among  them,  and  the  modern  missionary  is  much  less  often 
the  victim  of  the  loafing  rogue  who  is  ever  ready  to  barter  his 


INDIA  383 

faith  for  a  mess  of  pottage.  With  the  establishment  of  a 
community  on  a  self-supporting  basis,  which  is  in  many  places 
already  secured,  its  progress  in  self-respect  and  conception  of 
the  duties  of  citizenship  must  continue  to  increase."  That 
false  shame  which  looks  down  on  certain  forms  of  manual  la- 
bor is  gradually  being  overcome,  and  will  further  disappear 
with  the  enlargement  of  missionary  industrial  school  work. 
Two  testimonies  typical  of  many,  are  adduced  to  show  what 
men  of  the  highest  reputation  for  truth  in  this  Empire  think 
of  the  converts.  Sir  William  Muir,  formerly  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor of  the  Northwest  Provinces,  has  said :  "  Thousands  have 
been  brought  over,  and  in  an  ever  increasing  ratio  converts  are 
being  brought  over  to  Christianity.  And  they  are  not  sham  nor 
paper  converts,  as  some  would  have  us  believe,  but  good  and 
honest  Christians  and  many  of  them  of  a  high  standard."  One 
who  knew  them  more  intimately  than  a  civilian  could,  Bishop 
Caldwell,  thus  wrote :  "  I  maintain  that  the  Christians  of  our 
Indian  Mission  have  no  need  to  shrink  from  comparison  with 
Christians  in  a  similar  station  in  life  and  similarly  circum- 
stanced in  England  or  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  I  think 
I  do  not  exaggerate  when  I  affirm  that  they  appear  to  me  in 
general  more  teachable  and  tractable,  more  considerate  of  the 
feelings  of  others  and  more  respectful  to  superiors,  more  uni- 
formly temperate,  more  patient  and  gentle,  more  trustful  in 
Providence,  better  churchgoers,  yet  free  from  religious  bigotry, 
and  in  proportion  to  their  means,  more  liberal  than  Christians 
in  England  holding  a  similar  position  in  the  social  scale." 

5.  We  who  have  been  "  basking  for  centuries  under  the 
sunshine  of  Christian  faith,"  must  not  expect  to  find  these 
Christians  as  strong  spiritually  as  the  majority  of  Occidental 
church  members.  Yet  with  such  examples  of  personal  faith, 
righteousness  and  spirituality  as  N.  Goreh,  R.  C.  Bose,  Nar- 
ayen  Sheshadri,  Dr.  Imad-ud  Din,  Pundita  Ramabai,  and 
others,  one  cannot  but  praise  God  for  the  abundant  fruitage 
of  the  Spirit  that  India  has  seen.  In  proportion  as  their  for- 
eign leaders  are  men  and  women  of  the  Spirit,  will  their  con- 


384  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

verts  feel  the  need  of  this  indwelling  in  order  to  supply  the 
most  serious  lack  in  the  life  of  the  Indian  Church. 

V.  Present  Position  and  Needs  of  the  Christians.  — 
In  a  recent  issue  of  "  The  Indian  Christian  Guardian,"  a  native 
clergyman,  Rev.  J.  J.  Caleb,  B.A.,  states  these  in  the  form  of 
an  acrostic  reading  Indian  Christian.  Despite  the  artificiality 
resulting  from  its  acrostic  character  in  two  or  three  instances, 
a  summary  of  his  view  of  the  situation  is  given. 

I.  Their  present  position  is  (i)  one  of  Isolation.  As  Rev. 
W.  G.  Peel  wrote  in  1892,  "  The  growth  of  spiritual  life  in 
Indian  Christians  is  harmed  by  the  isolated  and  unique  posi- 
tion which  is  incidental  to  the  profession  of  their  faith  in  Christ. 
The  Hindu  casts  them  off.  The  Mohammedan  regards  them 
with  horror  as  deserters  from  Islam.  The  Parsee  closes  the 
doors  of  his  home  to  them.  The  Europeans,  generally  speak- 
ing, —  missionaries  excepted,  —  pay  but  little  heed  to  them. 
They  regard  them  coldly.  They  seldom  or  never  visit  them. 
They  often  speak  unkindly  of  them  in  the  mass,  because  of 
some  experience  of  an  untoward  kind  in  connection  with  a  few 
individuals.  They  pray  little  for  them.  They  do  not  worship 
with  them,  and  almost  in  no  way  do  they  show  sympathy  with 
them  or  for  them."  (2)  It  is  a  position  of  Need.  A  Hindu's 
conversion  often  renders  him  penniless ;  but  what  most  feel 
even  more  than  the  need  of  money  is  the  hunger  for  sympathy 
and  for  Christian  friends  and  fellowship.  (3)  It  is  one  of 
Disunion.  Separated  for  ages  by  differing  castes,  habits,  cus- 
toms,, trades  and  prejudices,  as  well  as  by  the  stronger  lines 
of  religious  differences,  the  Christian  community  finds  it  most 
difficult  to  become  one  body  in  Christ.  Yet  if  men  anywhere 
needed  to  combine  into  a  single  body,  closely  knit  together, 
it  is  the  Indian  Church.  The  past  must  be  buried;  prejudices 
and  the  marks  of  caste  must  be  laid  aside;  self-interest  must 
become  the  servant  of  the  common  good.  (4)  Imitation  is 
the  grave  charge  that  has  been  brought  against  Indian  Chris- 
tianity. As  already  stated,  this  has  been  most  natural.  The 
present  difficult  task  of  developing  a  native  Church,  Oriental 


INDIA  385 

and  Indian  in  character,  and  yet  wholly  Christian,  must  be 
wrought  out  by  a  people  whose  experience  under  a  dominating 
priesthood  for  many  millenniums  has  unfitted  them  to  take 
this  initiative.  (5)  Aspirations  and  Ambitions  are,  thank  God, 
also  present  in  the  native  Church.  "  If  there  is  ever  a  time 
to  be  ambitious  and  aspiring  it  is  not  when  ambition  is  easy, 
but  when  it  is  hard.  '  Fight  in  darkness ;  fight  when  you  are 
down ;  die  hard,  and  you  won't  die  at  all,'  are  the  noble  words 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher ;  and  to  Indian  Christians  fighting  the 
battle  of  life  against  so  many  opposing  influences,  they  must 
come  with  a  double  meaning."  (6)  The  native  Church  is 
Numerically  small.  What  is  this  little  band  of  believers 
"  compared  to  the  teeming  millions  of  men  and  women  who 
have  not  yet  heard  the  Shepherd's  voice  and  are  consequently 
out  of  the  fold?  They  are  like  a  drop  of  water  in  the  ocean, 
a  little  leaven,  which  will,  let  us  hope,  leaven  the  whole." 

2.  The  wants  of  Indian  Christians  are  many  and  varied, 
(i)  Chances  to  enter  more  fully  into  higher  forms  of  mission- 
ary work  are  pleaded  for  by  such  native  writers  as  Mr.  Caleb 
and  Professor  Sattianadhan,  as  well  as  by  clear-headed  men 
like  the  late  Archbishop  Benson.  To  quote  from  the  latter: 
"  The  position  of  India  and  the  tone  and  character  of  India  will 
be  the  most  important  factor  in  the  future  and  I  must  avow  my 
own  deliberate  conviction  —  having  thought  and  read  about  it 
a  great  deal  —  that  we  Westerns  shall  never  convert  Moham- 
medans. Why,  look  at  everything  in  the  Western  and  Eastern 
minds ;  they  are  opposed  to  each  other  down  to  their  preposi- 
tions and  adverbs.  They  look  at  everything  from  an  entirely 
different  point  of  view.  I  do  not  believe  that  Westerns  will 
produce  any  effect  on  Mohammedans.  They  must  be  ap- 
proached by  Oriental  missionaries.  Oriental  missionaries  need 
not  be  such  bad  fellows ;  the  Apostles  were  Oriental  mission- 
aries. They  must  be  Oriental  missionaries  to  produce  an  effect 
upon  the  thought  and  feeling  of  Orientals."  (2)  Humility  is 
as  desirable  as  in  the  case  of  the  early  Christians  to  whom  St: 
Augustine  wrote :  "  Should  any  man  ask  me  what  is  the  first 


386  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

thing  in  religion,  I  would  reply,  '  The  first,  second  and  third 
thing  therein  is  humility.'  "  (3)  Representation  is  likewise 
needed,  if  the  native  Church  is  to  have  a  healthy  life.  While 
the  wisdom  'of  foreign  missionaries  is  desired,  its  native  mem- 
bers ought  also  to  be  fully  represented  in  its  counsels  and  in  the 
shepherding  of  its  members.  (4)  Individuality  is  necessary 
for  a  strong  Church ;  but  when  its  members  are  largely  de- 
pendent upon  foreign  money  and  missionaries,  it  is  especially 
difficult  to  cultivate  this.  The  fear  of  giving  offence  or  of 
showing  ingratitude  must  be  overcome,  and  Christians  should 
be  actuated  by  love  for  the  work  of  the  Church  and  with  a  sense 
of  personal  responsibility  for  it.  (5)  Self-sacrifice  is  pe- 
culiarly needed.  "  Christ's  whole  life  was  a  life  of  self-sacri- 
fice, and  if  we  wish  to  attain  to  this  goal  of  blessedness,  to  a 
life  entirely  free  from  self,  a  life  spent  in  the  services  of  the 
Master,  a  life  of  self-sacrifice  given  and  spent  to  bring  our 
countrymen  to  a  knowledge  of  Christ,  let  us  remember  that 
it  is  our  duty  to  copy  and  imitate  the  life  of  our  Master  in 
every  possible  way."  (6)  The  virtue  of  Temperance  is  the 
more  important  in  view  of  the  feeling  among  many  that  the 
use  of  liquor  is  inseparable  from  Christianity,  judging  from 
the  drunkenness  that  is  so  prevalent  among  dissolute  Euro- 
peans. (7)  The  Indian  Church  wants  Institutions  to  promote 
life  and  the  growth  of  that  life,  to  promote  union  and  all  other 
virtues  needed  for  its  advancement.  Such  institutions  as  the 
Indian  Christian  Union  in  Great  Britain,  the  Christian  En- 
deavor Society,  Epworth  League,  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation, etc.,  in  India,  are  harbingers  of  the  better  day  near 
at  hand.  (8)  Action  and  Advance  are  words  that  should  pos- 
sess the  Indian  Christian.  Foes  are  innumerable  and  the  forces 
of  Immanuel  few ;  energy  and  fearless  onset  are  indispensable, 
if  the  seemingly  impregnable  citadel  of  Mansoul  is  to  be  car- 
ried in  India.  (9)  If  anything  of  Note  is  to  be  accomplished 
by  the  native  Christians,  there  must  be  constant  activity  with- 
out the  lacks  named  above  and  with  the  provisions  that  have 
been  seen  to  be  essential.    Mr.  Caleb  closes  thus :    "  The  great 


INDIA  387 

writer,  Ruskin,  says :  '  Neither  days  nor  lives  can  be  made 
holy  by  doing  nothing  in  them.  The  best  prayer  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  day  is  that  we  may  not  lose  its  moments ;  and  the  best 
grace  before  meat,  the  consciousness  that  we  have  justly  earned 
our  dinner.'  True  well-wishers  of  the  Indian  Christians,  who 
wish  to  see  this  community  rise  higher  and  nobler,  need  a 
spirit  of  this  kind.  Let  each  one  lend  a  helping  hand  in  every 
possible  way  he  can  for  the  social,  moral  and  religious  awaken- 
ing and  uplifting  of  this  community.  Let  our  best  efforts  be 
directed  towards  the  attainment  of  this  object.  To  each  In- 
dian Christian  let  the  words  come  home : 

'Do  something  —  do  it  soon  — with  all  thy  might; 
An  angel's  wing  would  droop,  if  long  at  rest ; 
And  God  Himself,  inactive,  were  no  longer  blest.' " 

VI.  Outlook  for  the  Future.  —  Great  problems  face  the 
Indian  missionaries,  but  despite  their  gravity,  the  workers  are 
very  hopeful  and  call  loudly  for  adequate  reinforcements. 
Elements  in  the  situation  that  inspire  hopefulness  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

I.  The  attitude  of  the  press  and  of  Hindu  writers  is,  on  the 
whole,  far  more  helpful  to  missions  than  it  was  a  few  years 
since.  Thus  one  of  the  leading  native  journals,  the  "  Indian 
Spectator,"  said  recently :  "  Whether  by  virtue  or  by  necessity, 
the  Indian  people  have  acquiesced  in  the  policy  of  a  fair  field 
for  all  faiths,  and  in  the  case  of  Christian  missions,  they  have 
even  learnt  to  value  them  for  the  wholesome  moral  influence 
which  they  diffuse  all  around.  We  absolutely  subscribe  to 
Lord  Lawrence's  opinion,  that  '  notwithstanding  all  that  the 
English  people  have  done  to  benefit  India,  the  missionaries 
have  done  more  than  all  other  agencies  combined.'  "  One 
other  extract,  taken  from  the  organ  of  the  advanced  Brahmo- 
Samajists,  "  The  New  Dispensation,"  must  suffice :  "  It  is  an 
undoubted  fact  that  the  moral  code  of  Christians  and  even  the 
personality  of  their  founder  are  finding  an  increasing  accept- 
ance with  the  better  classes  of  the  Hindu  population  in  the 


388  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

advanced  presidencies  of  Bombay  and  Bengal.  The  growing 
public  spirit  among  all  classes  has  an  unmistakable  likeness 
to  what  is  done  by  people  in  Christian  countries,  and  the  Bible 
is  read  in  places  where  its  very  name  was  tabooed  half  a  cen- 
tury ago.  The  life  and  character  of  Jesus  Christ  are  studied 
with  genuine  reverence,  and  it  is  not  an  unusual  thing  to  find 
a  likeness  of  Christ  hung  up  in  the  parlor  of  an  educated  Hindu 
householder.  Our  determination  is  to  take  the  universal  prin- 
ciples of  spiritual  life  inculcated  by  Christ  Himself." 

2.  Among  the  non-Christian  masses  there  are  many  who  are 
filled  with  unrest.  They  seek  something  better,  than  Hinduism 
or  Mohammedanism ;  and  as  society  in  many  places  is  slightly 
leavened  with  Christianity,  they  become  readers  of  the  Bible 
or  of  Christian  tracts  and  books.  Wherever  known,  Christ  is 
honored  if  not  accepted.  With  this  new  outlook  comes  a  de- 
sire to  gain  at  least  a  rudimentary  education,  and  in  some  cases 
industrial  schools  are  also  hailed  with  delight.  Many  mission- 
aries find  the  open  doors  so  prevalent  that  they  boldly  assert 
that  millions  may  be  won  and  raised  to  a  high  type  of  Chris- 
tian living.  The  recent  famine  and  plagues  have  raised  the 
missionaries  and  native  converts  to  a  position  of  physical 
saviours  of  vast  multitudes,  and  this  exhibition  of  Christian 
love  is  winning  many. 

3.  Christians  of  India  are  of  such  a  character  that,  as  already 
shown,  there  is  every  reason  for  being  hopeful  about  their 
future.  Not  only  do  the  mass  movements  that  are  beginning 
in  some  parts  of  the  Empire  rapidly  augment  the  number  of 
Christians,  but  this  very  fact  is  furnishing  a  Christian  atmos- 
phere and  inspiring  hope  and  confidence.  Jn  some  sections 
the  number  of  high-caste  converts  is  increasing ;  while  in  some 
quarters  there  are  many  secret  inquiries  from  the  ranks  of  the 
educated.  Often  these  men  do  not  dare  to  risk  interviews,  but 
correspond  with  the  missionary.  Church  members  are  learn- 
ing that  Christianity  must  become  indigenous,  and  hence  self- 
support  and  independence  are  more  common.  Especially 
among  the  younger  members  do  these  desires  find  expression. 


INDIA  389 

There  is  also  manifest  in  many  communities  a  greater  spirit  of 
unity  which  finds  joy  in  the  coming  together  of  various  classes 
to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Naturally  such  communities 
are  growing  in  spirituality  and  seek  always  after  higher  ideals. 

4.  Nor  are  the  missionaries  themselves  what  they  once  were. 
Each  year  comity  is  being  more  regarded ;  larger  opportunities 
for  knowing  each  other  draw  them  together ;  conferences  bring 
new  suggestions  into  their  work  and  kindle  the  fire  of  spiritual 
desire.  Such  calamities  as  famines  and  plagues  have  brought 
these  faithful  men  and  women  into  the  wider  fellowship  of 
Christians  the  world  over,  and  to-day  more  prayer  is  being 
offered  in  their  behalf  than  at  any  previous  time. 

5.  No  wonder  that  they  long  intensely  for  reinforcements 
that  India's  salvation  may  be  hastened.  As  long  ago  as  1893 
the  Bombay  Decennial  Conference  uttered  this  Macedonian 
cry:  "  Face  to  face  with  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  millions 
in  this  land  —  for  whom  in  this  generation  you  as  well  as  we  are 
responsible  —  we  ask,  Will  you  not  speedily  double  the  present 
number  of  laborers?  Will  not  you  also  lend  your  choicest 
pastors  to  labor  for  a  term  of  years  among  the  millions  who  can 
be  reached  through  the  English  tongue?  Is  this  too  great  a 
demand  to  make  upon  the  resources  of  those  saved  by  Omnipo- 
tent Love?  At  the  beginning  of  another  century  of  missions 
in  India  let  us  all  '  expect  great  things  from  God  —  attempt 
great  things  for  God.'  For  the  reflex  blessings  to  yourselves, 
as  well  as  for  India's  sake,  we  beseech  you  to  '  hear  what  the 
Spirit  saith  unto  the  churches.'  The  manifestation  of  Christ 
is  to  those  who  keep  His  commandment,  '  Go  ye  into  all  the 
world  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature.' "  A  present- 
day  echo  of  this  cry  —  emanating  from  the  North  India  Con- 
ference, convened  in  September  last  at  Missoorie, —  is  a  call 
for  prayer  that  the  wave  of  revival,  now  visiting  Japan,  may 
sweep  over  India  with  mighty  power.    Orare  est  laborare. 


XV 

PERSIA,   OR   IRAN 

PART  I.  — GENERAL 

The  native  name  of  Persia  is  Iran,  which  reminds  one  of 
the  fact  that  here  was  a  part  of  the  original  territory  of  our 
Aryan  race.  It  constitutes  the  western  portion  of  the  great 
table-land  extending  with  interruptions  from  the  Indus  to  the 
Tigris,  and  stretches  to  a  distance  of  700  miles  from  north  to 
south,  with  a  width  of  900  miles  from  east  to  west.  Its  area  of 
628,000  square  miles  is  approximately  equal  to  that  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Greece  and  Italy  combined ;  or  of  Mon- 
tana, Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Nevada. 

I.  The  Land,  Climate  and  Calamities  of  Iran.  —  i.  One 
who  has  long  resided  in  that  country  and  written  extensively 
concerning  it,  Sir  Frederick  J.  Goldsmid,  has  given  this  com- 
prehensive picture  of  the  land:  "  Suppose  a  table-land  drop- 
ping to  the  Caspian  Sea  for  nearly  one-third  of  its  northern 
frontier,  and  to  the  Persian  Gulf  for  its  southern  limit.  The 
lowlands  naturally  are  the  coast-tracts.  In  the  North  these 
are  covered  with  forest,  and  the  climate  there  is  damp,  feverish, 
relaxing;  in  the  South  they  are  dry  and  barren,  and  the  winds 
are  hot  and  violent,  yet  a  relief  to  the  scorching  summer  at- 
mosphere. In  the  central  highlands  —  that  is,  Persia  gener- 
ally—  there  are  few  rivers,  and  the  country  is  either  com- 
posed of  parallel  mountain-ranges  and  broad  intervening  plains, 
or  of  irregular  mountain-masses  with  fertile  valleys,  basins 
and  ravines.  One  plain  of  the  East  is  of  exceptionally  large 
extent,  and  is  called  the  Salt  Desert  of  Khorassan.  The  theory 
390 


PERSIA,    OR    IRAN  391 

that  this  was  once  a  sea  is  supported  by  the  circumstance  that 
at  one  of  its  extreme  edges  is  the  village  of  Yunsi,  so  called  be- 
cause the  prophet  Jonah  (Yunas)  is  locally  believed  to  have 
been  cast  up  there  by  the  whale.  For  irrigation  the  plains 
and  valleys  depend  on  the  mountains,  and  at  the  base  of  these 
are  '  kanats,'  or  underground  canals,  with  water  courses  on  the 
surface.  Yet  where  rain  and  snow  fail  during  the  year  there 
is  scarcity  of  water,  and  where  both  are  wanting  there  is  always 
distress  and  sometimes  famine.  The  valleys  and  ravines  are 
more  fertile  than  the  plains,  affording  often  bright,  picturesque 
and  grateful  prospects,  while  the  latter  are  for  the  most  part 
barren  and  sandy  wastes,  scored  or  streaked,  as  it  were,  rather 
than  ornamented  with  patches  of  green  oases.  Forests  are 
rare  and,  except  in  the  Ghilan,  not  dense;  numerous  gardens 
are  commonly  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  not 
cared  for  as  in  Europe,  yet  pleasant  in  their  wildness ;  and 
there  are  many  beautiful  trees  usually  also  near  the  centers  of 
population. 

2.  "  Persian  cities  are  not  like  cities  in  Europe.  The  passing 
stranger  sees  no  street  or  house  in  any  of  them  at  all  com- 
parable to  a  respectable  street  or  building,  as  England,  France 
or  Germany  rate  structural  respectability.  Blank  mud-walls 
and  narrow,  ill-paved  thoroughfares  are  the  rule ;  the  win- 
dowed or  terraced  front  of  a  Persian  house  is  for  the  inner 
court  or  inner  precincts  of  the  abode,  and  not  for  the  world 
without.  Some  mosques  are  handsome,  some  caravansaras 
solid,  some  bazaars  highly  creditable  to  the  designer  and 
builder ;  but  everything  is  irregular,  nothing  is  permanent,  and 
architectural  ruin  blends  with  architectural  revival  in  the  midst 
of  dirt,  discomfort  and  a  total  disregard  of  municipal  method." 

3.  The  villages  which  are  the  homes  of  the  masses  of  Per- 
sia —  the  farmers,  gardeners  and  shepherds  —  are  even  hum- 
bler than  the  mean  abodes  of  the  cities.  Unlike  Ameri- 
can and  European  farming  communities,  the  houses  are  all 
crowded  together  in  villages.  ''  The  stable  is  just  beside  the 
living  room,  with  one  yard  for  both.     The  roof  of  the  stable 


392  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

and  corners  of  the  yard  are  filled  with  stacks  of  hay,  thorn 
bushes  and  manure  fuel.  The  latter  is  prepared  by  being 
kneaded,  formed  into  cakes  and  stuck  upon  the  walls  to  dry. 
In  all  villages  it  is  ever  present  to  sight  and  smell.  The  village 
streets  are  narrow,  crooked  and  as  filthy  in  rainy  weather  as 
an  undrained  barnyard.  Fleas,  flies,  sandflies,  mosquitoes, 
body-lice  and  sheep-ticks  are  common  nuisances."  From  these 
compacted  centers  of  life,  the  farmers  go  out  long  distances 
to  their  work.  One  of  the  peculiar  crops  that  they  care  for  is 
"  the  harvest  of  thorns."  On  the  cultivated  land  and  on  the 
fields  after  harvest  spring  up  great  quantities  of  camel  thorns. 
These  are  diligently  gathered  and  brought  on  donkeys'  backs 
to  be  used  in  baking  bread,  burning  limestone  or  brick  and 
heating  bath-houses.  Besides  the  varied  crops,  the  setting  of 
the  village  includes  numerous  flocks  and  herds  pastured  in 
common  by  a  herder  and  some  boys,  aided  by  fierce  yellow 
curs  that  are  a  terror  to  the  traveler. 

4.  Additional  items  concerning  the  climate  should  be  noted. 
On  the  high  table-lands  —  and  this  means  the  majority  of  Per- 
sian territory  —  it  is  in  winter  very  cold,  and  in  summer  hot ; 
though  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  it  is  not  as 
uncomfortable  as  in  many  lands  where  a  lower  temperature 
prevails.  In  the  Caspian  provinces,  owing  to  their  depression 
below  sea  level,  they  are  exposed  to  a  degree  of  heat  in  sum- 
mer almost  equal  to  that  of  tropical  islands,  but  as  a  com- 
pensation their  winters  are  mild.  Rains  are  here  frequent  and 
heavy,  and  marshy  tracts  are  exceedingly  unhealthful.  In  the 
southern  provinces  of  Persia,  known  as  the  Dushtislan,  the 
winter  and  spring  are  marked  by  a  most  delightful  climate, 
the  summer  by  heat  that  is  tolerable,  while  in  the  autumn  it  is 
almost  unbearably  warm.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  atmos- 
phere of  Persia  surpasses  that  of  almost  any  other  country  in 
its  dryness  and  purity.  Diseases  are  not  very  common  except 
among  children.  Mr.  Wilson  states  that  "  perhaps  not  one  in 
six  survives ;  indeed  it  is  said  that  not  one  in  ten  reaches  ma- 
turity.    Nature  carries  on  the  struggle  for  existence  against 


PERSIA,    OR   IRAN  393 

the  neglect,  ignorance  and  indifference  of  parents.  Exposure, 
improper  clothing,  injudicious  diet  and  other  breaches  of  sani- 
tary laws  carry  off  the  children  to  early  graves." 

5.  Calamities  which  frequently  visit  Persia  and  make  it  a 
land  of  poverty  and  suffering  are  mainly  due  to  famine  and 
earthquake.  In  earlier  times  the  former  was  not  so  common 
as  at  present,  since  irrigation,  which  is  so  essential  to  success- 
ful agriculture  in  much  of  Persia,  is  not  provided  for  so  well 
as  formerly.  Moreover,  the  introduction  of  new  crops  is  par- 
tially responsible  for  famine.  Thus  in  1879  the  awful  suffer- 
ings were  partly  caused  by  the  substitution  of  the  culture  of 
opium  for  grain.  The  ravages  of  locusts  are  also  liable  to 
cause  a  scarcity  of  food,  as  was  notably  the  case  in  a  portion 
of  the  country  in  1890.  Earthquakes,  too,  are  a  serious  source 
of  danger.  Very  frequently  the  shocks  are  severe  enough  to 
cause  walls  and  houses  to  fall,  burying  multitudes  beneath. 
"  On  November  17,  1893,  an  earthquake  destroyed  every  house 
in  Kuchan,  Khorassan.  On  that  occasion  12,000  persons  were 
killed  out  of  a  population  of  some  25,000,  and  50,000  head 
of  cattle  perished.  Within  a  week  160  distinct  shocks  were 
felt.  The  town  had  been  partially  rebuilt  when  it  was  again 
destroyed  in  January,  1895." 

II.  People  and  Languages.  —  While  one  would  expect 
to  find  here  many  descendants  of  the  Aryan  in  a  comparative 
state  of  purity,  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  have  in  their  veins  a 
very  large  intermixture  of  foreign  blood.  In  all,  Persians  are 
said  to  number  at  the  present  time  about  9,000,000,  though  es- 
timates only  a  trifle  over  half  this  total  are  strongly  defended. 

I.  Racial  Divisions.  —  The  settled  population  are  mainly 
Tajiks,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Persians.  They  are  almost 
wholly  agriculturists,  merchants  and  artisans.  They  are  de- 
scribed as  "  timid,  cunning  and  servile,  but  Vambery  testifies 
to  their  interest  and  their  capacity  for,  and  love  of,  culture." 

The  nomad  or  pastoral  tribes  are  of  four  different  races,  the 
Turks,  Kurds,  Luurs  and  Arabs.  Of  these  the  Turks  are  the 
most  numerous.    The  Kurds  are  few  in  Persia,  though  many 


394  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  them  are  found  in  the  eastern  section  of  Turkey.  The  Arabs 
are  Hkewise  few,  and  have  so  fully  adopted  Persian  manners 
and  languages  that  they  cannot  well  be  distinguished  from  the 
Persian.  The  Luurs  are  of  almost  pure  Persian  blood. 
"  Nomad  races  are  distinguished  from  the  Tajiks  by  their  cour- 
age, manliness  and  independence  of  character ;  but  they  are  in- 
veterate robbers  and  have  been  the  cause  of  many  civil  wars 
and  revolutions." 

2.  Their  Language.  —  This  belongs  to  the  great  class  of  the 
Indo-European  tongues ;  and  the  term  Persian  applies  to  the 
language  spoken,  with  few  exceptions,  throughout  Persia,  and 
in  some  other  places  formerly  under  Persia's  control.  The  con- 
nection of  the  modern  speech  with  preceding  idioms,  so  im- 
portant in  Persian  literature,  is  quite  close ;  though  the  present 
language  is  the  offspring  of  the  Parsei  or  Farsi,  which  was 
in  use  from  700  to  looo  a.d.  Sir  R.  Murdoch  Smith  thus 
characterizes  it:  "In  general  the  language  is  pronounced  by 
universal  consent  to  be  the  richest  and  most  elegant  of  those 
spoken  in  modern  Asia.  It  is  the  most  sonorous  and  muscular, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  most  elegant  and  most  flexible 
of  idioms ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  in  Moslem  and 
Hindu  realms  it  should  have  become  the  language  of  the  court 
and  of  the  educated  world  in  general,  as  French  used  to  be  in 
Europe.  Its  chief  characteristic,  however,  is  the  enormous 
intermixture  of  Arabic  words,  which,  indeed,  make  up  almost 
half  of  its  vocabulary." 

3.  The  Homes  of  the  Masses.  —  Books  of  travel  usually 
describe  the  better  class  of  homes  found  in  Persian  cities ; 
but  as  the  missionary  has  mainly  to  do  with  the  poorer  stratum 
in  society  the  following  word  picture  by  S.  G.  Wilson  may  be 
taken  as  a  characteristic  interior.  He  is  here  describing  the 
Persian  New  Year,  which  comes  at  the  vernal  equinox  in 
March,  just  as  was  the  case  in  England  until  1752.  "  We 
knocked  at  the  outer  door,  that  the  women  might  have  a  chance 
to  conceal  themselves.  Bending  low,  we  stooped  down  and 
passed  under  a  long  arched  way,  and  entered  a  little  yard  with 


PERSIA,    OR   IRAN  395 

mud-plastered  walls.  The  cahvakhana  or  hall  opened  into  a 
half-underground  room,  in  one  end  of  which  was  a  poorly 
made  window,  covered  with  oiled  paper,  its  cracks  being  sim- 
ilarly pasted  over  to  keep  out  the  wind.  Its  flopping,  ill-fitting 
door  was  low,  while  the  sill  was  very  high,  in  order  that  the 
shoes  may  be  taken  off  in  the  hall  and  not  obstruct  the  opening 
and  shutting  of  the  door.  The  rafters  overhead  were  unceiled. 
The  furniture  consisted  of  common  carpets  (ghelim),  a  mir- 
ror brought  with  the  wedding  outfit,  a  copper  basin  and  ewer, 
a  small  tea-urn  and  some  glasses  and  a  kalean  on  the  lower 
niches.  On  the  upper  niches  were  a  few  bottles,  and  on  the 
once  whitened  walls  had  been  pasted  some  cigarette-papers, 
caricature  prints  and  verses  from  the  Koran.  The  host  greeted 
us  with  a  hearty  '  Welcome !  You  have  done  me  a  great  favor.' 
We  replied,  '  May  your  festival  be  blessed,  may  your  house 
be  blessed ! '  He  answered,  '  It  is  a  present  to  you.'  The  other 
guests  rose,  placed  their  right  hands  first  on  their  hearts,  then 
to  their  foreheads,  and  bowed  low.  We  knelt  on  our  knees 
on  calico  cushions,  the  weight  of  the  body  resting  on  the  heels. 
The  host,  though  his  circumstances  were  straitened,  was  bright 
in  conversation.  A  small  boy  dressed  like  a  grown  man  en- 
tered, and  we  inquired,  'Who  is  this?'  *  He  is  your  slave,' 
he  replied ;  which  meant,  '  He  is  my  son.'  A  dish  of  wheat 
was  growing  on  the  window-sill,  a  symbol  of  the  renewal  of  the 
year.  A  fish  was  swimming  in  a  pan  which  called  forth  a  re- 
mark from  him  that  fish  always  look  toward  Mecca  at  Noruz. 
He  placed  before  us  a  few  candies,  some  boiled  eggs  and 
pickled  grapes.  He  had  the  samovar  already  boiling,  and  sat 
down  beside  it,  washed  the  cups  and  saucers,  and  placed  tea 
before  us.  We  did  not  decline  to  drink,  for  the  poor  man 
would  feel  aggrieved.  He  honored  us  specially  by  almost 
filling  our  tea-glasses  with  sugar,  though  he  himself  sipped 
his  tea  through  a  small  lump  which  he  held  within  his  teeth 
and  retained  to  sweeten  succeeding  sups.  What  does  a  poor 
man  have  besides  the  things  within  sight?  His  goods  consist 
of  a  few  rude  dishes  of  native  pottery,  a  jar  or  two  of  pickled 


396  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

herbs  and  dried  vegetables,  a  flour-bin,  some  copper  pots  and 
a  chest  of  clothing.  With  his  wages  of  a  dime  a  day  as  a  la- 
borer or  servant  he  must  provide  for  his  Khadija  and  Ismiel, 
Husain  and  Fatima.  He  thanks  God  for  the  blessing  of  such 
a  family;  but  how  do  they  live  on  such  a  pittance?  Most  of 
it  goes  to  buy  bread,  which,  with  some  salty  cheese  to  give  it 
taste,  or  a  glass  of  weak  tea,  constitutes  his  breakfast;  his 
luncheon  is  bread  and  sour  milk,  garlic  or  onions  or  some 
cheap  fruit ;  for  dinner  a  stew  of  meat  and  vegetables  highly 
seasoned  with  red  peppers  and  onions  —  a  large  quantity  for 
a  little  meat  —  makes  his  bread  palatable.  Lack  of  employ- 
ment or  high  prices  reduce  him  to  bread  and  water.  In  winter 
a  few  shahis'  worth  of  charcoal  lasts  the  family  a  long  while 
under  the  kurisee." 

4.  The  condition  of  ivoman  in  Persia  is  like  that  of  her  sex 
in  the  rest  of  Southwestern  Asia,  the  most  characteristic  fact 
being  her  seclusion.  This  means,  of  course,  that  there  is  in  this 
country  no  common  social  life,  men  associating  with  men  only 
and  woman  with  her  sisters  in  so  far  as  they  are  within  reach. 
The  chief  hardship  of  this  seclusion  falls  upon  women  of  well- 
to-do  families ;  since  they  are  very  closely  guarded,  and  have 
the  additional  bitterness  of  being  cooped  up  within  walls  where 
rival  wives  and  concubines  occasion  jealousy.  In  the  homes 
of  the  rich,  eunuchs  act  as  guardians  and  stewards  of  the  fam- 
ily. "  The  wife  never  sits  at  a  feast  with  her  husband's  guests 
nor  receives  male  visitors."  Wives  must  be  in  subjection  to 
their  husbands,  and  they  become  so  abject  that  they  do  not  even 
dream  of  possessing  those  rights  which  have  become  the  glory 
of  Occidental  womanhood.  Woman  is  a  slave  to  man's  pleas- 
ure and  comfort,  and  is  accustomed  to  cruelties  of  many  sorts. 
Her  family  is  the  center  of  life,  and  all  her  interests  are  con- 
fined within  the  narrow  walls  of  the  harem.  Of  course,  in  the 
case  of  wives  of  peasants  and  of  the  poor,  there  is  far  more 
freedom,  and  polygamy  with  its  evils  is  not  often  afforded. 

5.  One  cannot  think  of  the  Persians  without  recalling  the 
political  conditions  which  grind  many  of  the  people  to  pow- 


PERSIA,    OR   IRAN  397 

der.  Taxation  is  not  so  heavy  a  millstone  about  the  neck  of  the 
peasant  as  in  Turkey,  perhaps,  but  it  is  nevertheless  one  of  the 
crying  evils  of  the  land.  Official  corruption  is  perpetually 
showing  itself  in  other  ways  than  through  taxation  and,  as  in 
China,  it  is  a  great  incubus  upon  the  entire  population.  So, 
too,  there  is  the  greatest  need  for  a  codification  of  the  civil 
law  with  a  definite  code  of  punishments.  At  present,  while 
the  country  is  nominally  ruled  by  the  Shah  as  the  vicegerent 
of  Mohammed  and  the  administrator  of  the  Koranic  law,  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  common  people  are  left  to  the  caprice  of  the 
Hakim,  "  who  is  both  governor  and  judge.  According  to  his 
state  of  digestion  the  decision  may  be  death  or  release.  The 
most  common  punishment  is  a  fine.  Murder  is  compounded 
for  blood  money  with  the  consent  of  the  victim's  friends.  A 
life  is  valued  at  as  low  as  $50.  Imprisonment  is  not  for  fixed 
times.  The  prisons  are  foul  and  damp.  The  dungeons  are  full 
of  insects  and  vermin.  The  threat  of  putting  a  prisoner  in  a 
dungeon  is  often  used  to  extort  money.  The  prisoners  are  not 
separated  and  often  engage  in  vile  and  abominable  practices." 

III.  Persian  Religions.  —  The  inhabitants  are  for  the 
most  part  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiite  division,  and  of  the  re- 
mainder nearly  800,000  belong  to  the  Sunnite  sect,  who  con- 
stitute the  leading  party  in  Turkey  and  of  the  Moslem  world. 
The  "  Statesman's  Year  Book "  asserts  that  "  the  Persian 
priesthood  (Ulema)  is  very  powerful  and  works  steadily 
against  all  progress.  Any  person  capable  of  reading  the  Koran 
and  interpreting  its  laws  may  act  as  a  priest." 

I.  The  Shiites.  —  The  religion  of  nearly  ninety  per  cent,  of 
the  people  is  that  of  the  "  sectaries,"  Shiite  being  from  Shiah, 
a  party.  It  was  the  name  given  by  the  orthodox  Mohamme- 
dans or  Sunnites  to  the  followers  of  Ali.  This  party  were 
champions  of  All's  right  to  be  Mohammed's  successor  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  his  cousin  and  son-in-law.  The  Persians 
who  hold  to  the  divine  right  and  even  the  divine  nature  of 
kings,  as  opposed  to  an  elected  successor,  support  this  party, 
and  hence  this  is  the  seat  of  greatest  Shiite  power.     They  all 


39^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

allegorize  the  Koran,  have  their  own  modes  of  religious  wash- 
ing, as  well  as  their  own  postures  in  prayer.  Being  ill-used  in 
Arabia,  they  do  not  go  on  Mecca  pilgrimages  as  commonly  as 
the  Sunnites.  Instead,  they  make  journeys  to  the  tombs  of 
AH  and  Hussein  in  the  Pashalic  of  Bagdad,  and  to  the  tombs 
of  other  saints.  A  striking  feature  of  this  form  of  Moham- 
medanism is  the  reverence  for  the  twelve  Imams  or  successors 
of  Mohammed.  Indeed,  so  prominent  is  this  characteristic  that 
Persia  has  been  known  as  "  The  Kingdom  of  the  Twelve " 
(sc.  Imams  of  the  House  of  Ali).  The  last  of  these  is  popu- 
larly supposed  to  have  disappeared  and  will  some  day  come 
forth  from  his  place  of  seclusion  as  the  Mahdi  or  director  of 
the  faithful,  who  will  be  entitled  to  absolute  rule  over  the  world, 
2.  Another  recent  party  that  has  considerable  influence  de- 
spite the  persecutions  which  it  has  endured,  came  into  existence 
through  this  doctrine  of  the  Mahdi.  The  system  is  denomi- 
nated Babism.  It  originated  with  the  son  of  a  merchant  born  in 
1819,  who  early  manifested  strong  religious  proclivities.  The 
word  bab  means  a  door,  and  he  professed  to  be  the  door  to 
the  Mahdi,  and  his  forerunner.  Later  he  laid  aside  the  title 
of  Bab,  and  assumed  that  of  Nokteh,  "  point,"  claiming  to  be 
the  center  in  which  all  preceding  dispensations  met.  Mission- 
aries were  sent  out,  the  most  famous  being  a  woman,  who  was 
remarkable  for  beauty  and  ability,  and  who  preached  against 
polygamy.  The  sect  became  numerous,  and  through  persecu- 
tions and  indiscretions  on  their  own  part  it  has  subsequently 
lived  a  checkered  existence.  It  has,  however,  gained  in 
strength,  and  is  to-day  widely  diffused  throughout  Persia. 
While  its  members  live  as  apparently  orthodox  Mohammedans, 
they  privately  hold  the  Bab's  doctrines,  which  are  a  mixture 
of  Mohammedan,  Christian,  Jewish  and  Parsee  elements.  It 
"  enjoins  few  prayers  and  those  only  on  fixed  occasions ;  en- 
courages hospitality  and  charity;  prohibits  polygamy,  concu- 
binage and  divorce ;  discourages  asceticism  and  mendicancy ; 
and  directs  women  to  discard  the  veil  and  share  as  equals  in 
the  intercourse  of  social  life."    It  is  thus  a  healthier  and  more 


PERSIA,    OR    IRAN  399 

practical  offshoot  of  Sufism,  even  appealing  to  Occidentals, 
some  3,000  Babists  being  found  in  the  United  States. 

3.  While  the  Koran  discourages  mysticism,  Persia  is  so  es- 
sentially the  home  of  the  mystic  that  Shiism  embodied  these 
tendencies  in  Siifism.  This  party  claimed  as  their  founder  a 
woman  named  Rabia.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  a  Persian 
of  Khorassan,  who  founded  a  monastery  about  815,  is  its  orig- 
inator. Their  name,  Sufis,  meaning  "  woolers,"  comes  from 
their  ascetic  garb.  "  The  object  of  all  Sufism  was  to  deliver 
the  soul  from  the  sway  of  the  passions  by  destroying  human 
nature  and  the  power  of  flesh,  and  so  to  make  the  soul  merely 
spiritual,  uniting  it  by  love  with  God  from  whom  it  had  ema- 
nated as  a  ray  emanates  from  the  sun."  It  has  been  the  religion 
of  some  of  the  most  cultured  of  Persian  litterateurs,  men  like 
Hafiz,  Sadi,  and  of  many  of  the  great  Persian  poets.  Their 
strength  seems  to  be  increasing  rather  than  waning,  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  Sufis  may  include  half  of  the  Persian  mid- 
dle class. 

4.  Reference  must  be  made  to  another  sect  which,  in  India, 
is  perhaps  ten  times  as  numerous  as  in  Persia.  As  this  is  their 
original  home,  they  are  described  here.  They  are  the  Parsees, 
or  as  Persians  call  them,  the  Guebers,  the  modern  followers  of 
the  ancient  sage  Zoroaster.  No  sect  in  Persia  is  so  exclusive 
as  they,  nor  is  any  looked  upon  by  their  fellow-countrymen 
with  anything  like  the  superstitious  fear  arising  from  their  sup- 
posedly baneful  influence  and  mysterious  rites.  "  They  be- 
lieve in  the  existence  of  one  supreme  God,  the  existence  of  an 
evil  spirit,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  merit  of  good  works 
and  have  a  reverential  regard,  amounting  to  worship,  for  the 
four  elements."  It  is  their  reverence  for  fire,  especially,  that 
has  differentiated  them  from  other  sects.  Yet  they  deny  that 
fire  is  in  any  true  sense  considered  an  object  of  worship,  and 
say  that  it  is  merely  a  symbol  of  the  most  appropriate  emblem 
of  the  divine  nature.  Another  characteristic  custom,  that  of 
burial  in  their  towers  of  silence,  is  due  to  their  attempt  to  pre- 
vent earth,  air  and  water  from  being  contaminated  by  cor- 


460  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

rtiption.  Notwithstanding  their  comparatively  pure  faith,  there 
is  no  marked  difference  between  Parsee  morality  and  that  of 
other  Orientals,  though  in  the  matter  of  truthfulness  they  may 
perhaps  surpass  their  neighbors.  In  India,  however,  they  are 
far  superior  to  the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  and  there,  as 
well  as  in  China,  they  are  prominent  in  the  mercantile  world. 


PART  II.  — MISSIONARY 

This  field  Is  a  difficult  one  because  of  the  strong  Moham- 
medan element,  as  well  as  for  the  reason  that  the  governmen- 
tal restrictions  placed  upon  missionary  work  prevent  its  full 
development.  Moreover,  the  force  employed  is  small,  and  just 
at  present  in  the  largest  mission  lack  of  funds  is  crippling  the 
enterprise. 

1.  The  Societies.  —  i.  The  Presbyterian  Board,  North,  is 
by  far  the  largest  one  on  the  field,  as  it  was  the  earliest  of 
those  still  existing.  In  1871  it  fell  heir  to  the  American 
Board's  pioneer  labors,  initiated  in  1833,  by  their  first  mission- 
aries, Justin  Perkins  and  Dr.  Grant.  Their  field  lies  north 
of  the  thirty- fourth  parallel,  though  a  vast  majority  of  their 
Christians  are  in  the  northwestern  section  of  the  country 
around  Lake  Urumiyah.  While  Jews,  Moslems  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  Armenians  are  labored  for,  most  of  the  converts 
are  drawn  from  the  Nestorians.  The  record  of  missionary 
effort  for  the  bold  Kurds,  from  the  early  times  down  to  the 
present,  is  one  full  of  interest.  Touring  among  these  people 
of  the  mountains  and  the  more  prosaic  but  exceedingly  prof- 
itable work  of  education  and  medicine  in  the  cities  and  on  the 
plain,  together  with  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  Chris- 
tian literature  of  the  country  and  a  prolific  press,  make  up  the 
bulk  of  its  missionary  operations. 

2.  Near  neighbors  of  the  Presbyterians  are  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Archbishop's  Mission  to  the  Assyrian  Christians, 
who  began  their  permanent  labors  in  1886.    It  is  the  only  mis- 


PERSIA,    OR   IRAN  4OI 

sion  which  does  not  aim  to  proselyte,  though  in  the  early  days 
the  American  missionaries  also  sought  to  work  within  the  Nes- 
torian  Church  and  only  established  a  distinct  Protestant  body 
when  the  impracticability  of  effecting  anything  within  that 
Communion  became  manifest. 

All  the  activities  of  the  missionaries  are  regulated  by  the  at- 
tempt to  aid  the  Nestorians  to  return  to  early  ecclesiastical 
decisions,  and  have  been  as  successful  as  so  difficult  a  task 
would  permit.  The  absorption  by  the  Russian  Church  of  many 
thousands  of  Nestorians  must  have  been  in  one  sense  a  severe 
blow  to  the  Mission,  though  the  consequent  loss  of  much  of 
their  constituency  was  partly  atoned  for  by  their  restoration 
to  a  more  orthodox  Confession. 

The  missionaries  still  have  some  of  their  former  constit- 
uency left  them,  besides  aiding  in  educational  work  that  was 
transferred  to  the  Russian  Greek  Church.  It  is  their  hope 
that  permisison  may  be  granted  by  the  Sultan  to  establish 
schools  within  the  Turkish  border,  thus  enabling  them  to  con- 
tinue with  greater  efficiency  former  efforts  for  those  people, 
and  to  do  the  same  work  for  Turkish  Nestorians  that  Russia's 
entrance  removed  the  necessity  for  doing  in  Persia.  The  English 
clergy  live  together  with  a  common  purse  and  conduct  their 
work  on  a  very  economical  basis.  Much  valuable  assistance, 
as  well  as  one  of  their  missionaries,  have  come  from  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  of  New  York.  It  is  reported  under  the 
head  of  The  Assyrian  Mission  Committee  in  the  records  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary 
Society.  This  American  Society,  it  may  be  added,  had  sent 
out  Rev.  Dr.  Southgate,  as  early  as  1836,  to  investigate  and 
report  on  the  Persian  field. 

3.  As  a  connecting  link  between  Northern  and  Southern 
Persia  is  the  London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity 
amongst  the  Jezvs,  which  began  its  operations  in  1847  ^^^  oc- 
cupies the  cities  of  Teheran  and  Ispahan.  Lord  Curzon  gives 
the  number  of  Hebrews  at  the  capital  as  4,000,  with  3,700  at 
Ispahan.     Outside  of  the  large  cities,  where  most  of  Persia's 


402  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

35,000  Jews  are  found,  other  descendants  of  ancient  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  captivities  are  scattered  in  more  than  a  hun- 
dred villages.  They  have  not  been  well  treated,  though  since 
the  energetic  British  remonstrance  against  the  massacre  of 
more  than  a  score  of  them  in  1866,  they  have  fared  better  than 
before. 

Missionaries  of  the  Society  are  permitted  to  preach  in  the 
synagogues,  after  the  manner  of  St.  Paul.  Like  the  Apostle, 
the  modern  missionary  spends  much  of  his  time  in  going  from 
house  to  house,  explaining  the  Scriptures,  —  for  which  there 
is  a  good  demand,  —  and  arguing  with  them  concerning  the 
meaning  of  Old  Testament  prophecies.  A  modern  method  of 
work,  the  school,  is  also  most  effectively  used.  English,  Per- 
sian and  Hebrew  are  taught,  and  the  pupils  use  the 
Lord's  Prayer.  Jewesses  are  quite  open  to  the  truth  and  gather 
about  the  preacher,  as  did  Lydia  and  her  companions  at 
Philippi. 

4.  The  southern  half  of  the  country  is  the  field  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  Dr.  Bruce  stopped  at  Julfa,  when  in  1869 
he  was  returning  to  India,  and,  through  a  series  of  providences, 
was  led  to  establish  the  Persian  Mission.  Medical  and  school 
work,  and  Bible  translation  are  the  forms  of  effort  which  make 
possible  and  feed  evangelistic  activity  of  the  mission.  One 
of  their  missionaries  says  that  the  love  of  hearing  and  seeing 
new  things  inclines  the  people  to  come  to  the  mission,  and  that 
once  there,  politeness  leads  them  to  listen  to  the  gospel.  If  an 
appeal  is  made  to  accept  the  truth,  want  of  earnestness,  the  self- 
righteousness  begotten  of  Mohammedanism,  the  fear  of  man 
and  the  various  stumbling-blocks  that  Islam  finds  in  the  Bible 
prevent.  This  missionary  gladly  notes  that  so  early  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  mission  a  kindlier  and  more  respectful  attitude  to- 
ward the  foreigner  is  evident,  though  Protestant  workers  are 
representatives  of  a  nation  that  sends  to  them  indecent  photo- 
graphs and  other  coarse  pictures.  They  also  suffer  from  be- 
ing identified  with  Catholics  whose  saints  give  Persians  the 
idea  that  all  Christians  depend  upon  such  mediators.     The 


PERSIA,    OR    IRAN  4O3 

liberty  to  give  or  sell  the  Scriptures  is  an  offset  to  this  wrong 
impression,  as  the  Bible  does  not  authorize  such  customs. 

5.  The  work  of  the  Bible  Societies  is  of  surpassing  import- 
ance in  this  country  where  open  interest  in  the  gospel  often  in- 
volves one  in  difficulty,  while  secret  Bible  reading  does  not 
bring  persecution.  In  the  case  of  the  Jews,  especially,  is  this 
work  crowned  with  success.  Many  of  them  are  modern 
Bereans  who  search  the  Scriptures  daily  in  order  to  learn 
whether  the  new  teachings  are  true.  At  present  the  American 
Bible  Society  has  no  resident  agent,  but  Presbyterian  mission- 
aries are  constantly  using  their  publications  in  corportage,  etc. 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  an  energetic  agent 
at  Ispahan's  southern  suburb,  Julfa.  Wholesale  orders  for  use 
in  Parsee  boys'  schools  are  mentioned  in  the  last  Report. 

6.  Other  less  important  labors  are  those  of  the  Community 
of  the  Sisters  of  Bethany  who  worked  in  conjunction  with  the 
Archbishop's  Assyrian  Mission  until  three  years  ago ;  a  little 
enterprise  of  the  Hermannsburg  Society,  not  deemed  worthy 
of  report  by  them ;  two  German  orphanages,  one  at  Urumiyah 
and  the  other  at  Khoi,  this  latter  ministering  to  loo  orphans ; 
and  the  Swedish  Missionary  Society's  labors. 

II.  Two  Characteristic  Methods.  —  i.  Educational  work 
has  been  emphasized  from  the  beginning.  Its  necessity  is 
manifest  from  this  statement  made  by  Secretary  Speer,  who 
has  recently  spent  considerable  time  in  the  country :  "  There 
is  no  system  of  popular  education  in  Persia.  Outside  of  Ta- 
briz and  Teheran  the  only  teacher  is  the  Moslem  ecclesiastic, 
the  limitations  of  whose  knowledge  make  the  instruction  which 
he  is  capable  of  giving  most  meager  and  pitiable.  Of  history, 
of  even  the  simplest  elements  of  science,  of  mathematics,  he 
knows  nothing  and  attempts  to  teach  nothing.  Yet  all  the 
education  which  a  Persian  receives,  unless  he  goes  to  the 
Shah's  colleges  in  Teheran  or  Tabriz,  or  enters  one  of  the  so- 
called  religious  colleges,  he  gets  in  a  village  school  taught  in 
the  street  or  in  a  court,  or  in  the  mosque,  by  a  mollah  whose 
curriculum  includes  the  Persian  alphabet,  the  rudiments  of 


404  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

arithmetic,  a  parrot-like  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  Koran.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  teach  writing  or  reading,  save  the  Persian 
alphabet.  Some  have  maintained  that  less  than  seven-eighths 
of  the  population  are  illiterate.  For  the  girls  there  are  no 
schools  at  all,  while  of  the  results  of  boys'  education,  Dr.  Wills 
says :  '  The  repeating  from  memory  of  a  few  prayers  and 
passages  from  the  Koran,  with  some  verses  of  poetry,  is  all 
that  remains  to  a  villager  generally  of  his  education.'  There 
are  no  higher  or  grammar  schools.  The  ecclesiastical  colleges, 
to  be  found  in  the  larger  cities,  are  frequented  in  the  main  by 
prospective  mollahs,  who  study  there  the  Koran,  Persian  litera- 
ture and  the  nonsense  of  Eastern  philosophy.  The  only  serious 
attempt  at  higher  education  in  the  country  has  been  made  in 
the  Shah's  college  at  Teheran,  the  Tabriz  school  being  largely 
discredited.  The  college  has  military,  medical  and  language 
departments  and  another  called  '  science  and  art ' ;  but  the  de- 
partments overlap  and  the  physical  laboratory  is  a  curiosity 
room  of  which  no  use  is  made." 

The  two  missionary  institutions  most  famous  in  Persia  on 
account  of  their  age  and  standing  are  Urumiyah  College  and 
Fiske  Seminary  for  young  women.  They  are  under  Presby- 
terian auspices  and  labor  mainly  for  the  Nestorians.  The  aim 
of  both  institutions  is  to  raise  up  Christian  leaders  in  the  home 
and  in  the  community,  and  what  they  have  accomplished  is 
witnessed  by  the  usage  of  the  people  themselves,  who  call  those 
villages  where  their  influence  has  been  felt  "  light  villages," 
whereas  those  where  their  power  is  unknown  are  "  dark  vil- 
lages." Fidelia  Fiske,  for  whom  the  Seminary  is  named,  left 
an  indelible  impress  on  northwestern  Persia,  as  she  "  was  con- 
tent with  nothing  less  than  the  absolute  transformation  of  the 
characters  which  came  under  her  influence."  The  Church 
Missionary  Society  at  Julfa  and  the  Archbishop's  Mission  — 
previous  to  the  Russian  invasion  —  have  also  done  much  in 
educational  lines. 

How  cosmopolitan  and  influential  a  constituency  mission 
schools  reach  is  indicated  by  this  extract  relating  to  the  Amer- 


PERSIA,    OR    IRAN  405 

ican  Presbyterian  Boys'  School  at  Teheran,  where  last  year 
the  enrolment  included  forty-one  Armenians,  twenty-two  Mos- 
lems, two  Jews  and  one  Parsee :  "  Of  these  twenty-two  Mos- 
lems, two  are  princes  of  the  Khajar  family,  being  second 
cousins  of  the  present  Shah ;  two  were  of  the  family  of  the 
chief  of  the  Bactrians;  three  are  Sayeds,  or  descendants  of 
Mohammed ;  one  is  a  mollah,  or  priest  of  Islam ;  of  the  re- 
mainder all  but  one  are  of  noble  birth.  It  was  inspiring  to  hear 
those  sixty  boys  singing  in  the  Persian  tongue  with  vim  and 
earnestness,  '  Joy  to  the  world,  the  Saviour  reigns.'  In  Eng- 
lish they  sang  '  Jewels,'  '  America  '  and  the  Doxology.  All 
students  have  daily  Bible  lessons  which  have  not  failed  to  bear 
fruit.  Almost  all  of  the  pupils  have  expressed  their  belief  in 
Christianity  as  a  way  of  salvation ;  but  most  of  the  Moslems 
are  reluctant  to  utterly  reject  the  religion  which  they  have 
known  and  believed  from  childhood,  and  cling  to  it  as  another 
true  way  of  life.  The  two  Jews  have  both  professed  their 
faith  in  Christ  and  have  asked  to  be  admitted  to  church  mem- 
bership by  baptism.  Two  other  boys,  one  from  an  old  Ar- 
menian family  and  the  other  a  Kurdish  Khan,  have  pro- 
fessed their  faith  in  Christ."  Outside  of  the  capital  and  Hama- 
dan,  the  missionaries  have  not  ventured  to  emphasize  Moham- 
medan school  work.  Indeed,  at  Teheran  they  probably  would 
not  have  done  so  had  not  the  late  Shah's  Council  requested  it 
in  writing,  while  Nasr-i  Din  Shah  personally  visited  the  schools 
in  order  to  show  the  favor  in  which  he  held  them. 

2.  Medical  missionaries  are  even  more  appreciated  by  the 
Persians.  Mr.  Speer  in  "  Presbyterian  Foreign  Missions," 
writes:  "Dr.  Cochran  saved  Urumiyah  in  1880  from  capture 
by  Sheikh  Abidullah  and  his  Kurds,  through  the  influence  he 
had  acquired  over  them  by  his  kindness  and  skill.  In  Tabriz, 
Dr.  Holmes  so  commended  the  religion  of  Jesus  that  even  an 
infidel  was  heard  to  remark,  '  If  there  is  a  heaven,  Dr.  Holmes 
will  go  to  it.'  When  the  late  Shah  was  shot,  Dr.  Wishard  was 
called  to  see  him.  Dr.  Vanneman  was  the  only  man  the  new 
Shah  could  trust    to  bring  his  family    to  Teheran,  and  Dr. 


406  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Holmes  was  at  once  summoned  to  become  his  personal  phy- 
sician and  could  only  with  difficulty  avoid  obeying." 

Elsewhere  the  same  writer  says  of  Dr.  Cochran:  "  He  was 
our  passport  and  defense.  The  chief  of  the  village  of  Evaglu, 
the  end  of  the  first  stage  of  the  journey,  was  chief  also  of  a 
band  responsible  for  many  robberies  and  murders  on  this  road. 
He  came  to  see  Dr.  Cochran,  who  is  a  quiet  little  man,  and 
who  looked  him  in  the  eye  and  said :  '  So  you  are  the  rascal 
who  commits  these  outrages?  I  have  heard  of  you.  Your 
name  is  a  stench  in  the  country.  Would  it  not  be  well  to 
stop  ? '  The  man's  face  turned  pale  and  he  went  out  soon  very 
quietly.  Those  who  speak  of  the  unpopularity  of  the  mission- 
aries should  have  been  with  us.  At  this  village  Moslem  women 
came  in  throngs.  Men  came  running  from  the  fields  and  the 
threshing  floors.  Now  Dr.  Cochran  was  the  leader.  Again 
he  was  called  to  act  as  referee  or  peacemaker.  At  Khoi  it  was 
the  Governor  who  sent  for  him  and  insisted  on  his  spending 
the  day  with  him,  sending  him  on  later  with  soldiers  to  over- 
take us.  At  Gavilan  it  was  only  a  village  full  of  simple  folk 
who  loved  him,  who  came  out  to  give  him  a  warm  welcome 
home.  Ten  miles  from  Urumiyah  people  began  to  meet  us, 
the  numbers  increasing  until  a  messenger  from  one  of  the 
Governors  came  leading  a  gaily  caparisoned  horse  to  be  taken 
before  him  in  honor;  and  then  at  last  a  poor  man,  whom  he 
had  healed,  came  running  out  and  kissed  his  foot  and  pros- 
trated himself  in  the  road  beside  him.  And  this  was  but  the 
beginning.  Each  day  would  bring  bishops  of  the  Old  Nesto- 
rian  Church  for  counsel,  prominent  Moslem  ecclesiastics  for 
help  or  healing,  governors  or  leading  noblemen  to  congratulate 
him  on  his  return  and  to  show  their  respect  for  him,  or  poor 
people,  for  whom  he  was  living,  to  bless  him.  All  this  showed 
me,  as  I  had  never  seen  it  before,  how  a  good  physician  can 
lay  hold  of  the  heart  and  mind  of  a  people."  It  is  not  surprising 
that  the  Shah  conferred  upon  Dr.  Holmes  the  decoration  of 
the  order  of  the  "  Lion  and  the  Sun  "  of  the  first  degree,  and 
upon  Dr.  Wishard  the  second  degree  of  the  same  order. 


PERSIA,    OR    IRAN  407 

Medical  efforts  for  Persian  women  are  even  more  necessary 
and  beneficent.  "  Suffering  women  turned  out  of  doors  to 
die,  even  in  midwinter,  by  those  to  whom  they  have  a  right 
to  look  for  support  and  care; "little  children  burned  nearly  to 
death,  not  by  accident,  but  by  deliberate  intention,  or  mutilated 
by  the  miserable  quackery  of  some  native  practitioner;  girls 
become  mothers  when  they  should  be  themselves  under  a 
mother's  care,  —  these  are  the  kind  of  cases  brought  to  the 
woman  doctor,  which  would  break  her  heart  if  they  did  not 
employ  her  hand."  How  divine  this  ministry  is  can  only  be 
realized  when  one  reads  such  details  as  are  given  by  a  British 
Student  Volunteer,  Dr.  Emmeline  Stuart,  in  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society's  report  for  1901  of  Bagum,  the  fourteen-year- 
old  child  wife  whom  her  husband  tried  to  burn  to  death. 

III.  The  Outlook.  —  This  is  one  of  mingled  hopefulness 
and  foreboding.  A  Board  Secretary  says  that  the  most  diffi- 
cult task  set  before  men  is  confronted  by  missionaries  in  Per- 
sia and  Syria.  Nevertheless,  the  Church's  duty  is  manifest, 
and  was  thus  hinted  at  in  1892  by  Lord  Curzon,  who  previous 
to  his  work  as  India's  Viceroy  was  not  a  favorable  critic  of 
missions :  "  Those  philosophers  are  right  who  argue  that 
moral  must  precede  material  and  internal  reform  in  Persia.  It 
is  useless  to  graft  new  shoots  on  to  a  stem  whose  sap  is  ex- 
hausted or  poisoned.  We  may  give  Persia  roads  and  railroads ; 
we  may  work  her  mines  and  exploit  her  resources;  we  may 
drill  her  army  and  clothe  her  artisans ;  but  we  shall  not  have 
brought  her  within  the  pale  of  civilized  nations  until  we  have 
got  at  the  core  of  the  people,  and  given  a  new  and  a  radical 
twist  to  the  national  character  and  institutions."  Certainly  no 
other  influence  has  done  so  much  to  bring  about  this  moral 
reform  as  the  missionary  physician's  operating  table,  the  trans- 
lator's pen,  the  school  teacher  and  the  Protestant  missionary's 
home,  with  its  new  revelation  of  woman's  queenly  power  and 
of  the  love  which  must  exist  in  the  great  Persian  family  of 
races,  before  age-long  abuses  disappear,  and  all  become  one  in 
the  family  of  God, 


XVI 

TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE 

PART  I.  — GENERAL 

I.  Divisions  and  Area.  —  The  center  of  gravity  of  Turkey- 
has  so  far  shifted  that  at  present  only  a  few  remnants  of  its 
former  power  are  found  in  Europe,  while  its  real  weight  lies 
east  of  the  Bosporus. 

1.  The  immediate  possessions  of  Turkey  are  as  follows:  In 
Europe,  a  region  of  country  occupying  a  narrow  strip  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  between  the  Adriatic  and  the  ^gean  and 
Black  Seas,  62,744  square  miles ;  in  Asia,  all  the  region  lying 
south  of  Russia  and  the  Black  Sea  as  far  eastward  as  Persia, 
and  south  to  Arabia,  of  which  latter  country  Hejaz  and 
Yemen  are  subject  to  Turkey,  650,097  square  miles ;  in  Asia, 
Tripoli  and  Bengazi,  398,900  square  miles,  —  making  a  total 
of  1,111,741  square  miles,  equal  in  area  to  one-third  of  the 
United  States. 

2.  In  addition,  the  following  countries  having  a  more  or  less 
nominal  subjection  to  Turkey  are  sometimes  added :  Bulgaria 
—  including  Eastern  Roumelia  —  which  is  autonomous,  37,860 
square  miles ;  Bosnia,  Herzegovina  and  Novibazar  under  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 23,570  square  miles ;  Crete,  3,326  square  miles ; 
Samos,  a  tributary  principality,  180  square  miles ;  Egypt,  under 
British  influence,  400,000  square  miles.  This  gives  a  total  of 
nearly  half  a  million  square  miles  which,  if  added  to  the  above, 
would  make  the  Ottoman  Empire  about  half  as  extensive  as 
the  United  States. 

408 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  4O9 

11.  The  Land.  —  This  varies  with  the  location,  yet  one  can 
gain  a  fair  idea  of  the  entire  Empire  by  glancing  at  four  typi- 
cal sections. 

1.  The  first  of  these  is  the  European  strip  extending  west- 
ward from  Constantinople.  This  is  mountainous,  rising  in 
some  peaks  to  a  great  height  and  peopled  by  a  mixture  of 
races  among  whom  the  Turks  are  somewhat  in  the  minority. 
The  only  power  holding  this  medley  of  races  together  is  that 
of  force  of  arms  and  international  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the 
great  Powers.  Much  of  it  is  historic  territory,  and  in  Mace- 
donia especially  it  abounds  in  beautiful  scenery.  Constantino- 
ple likewise  is  one  of  the  great  centers  of  interest  of  mediaeval 
and  modern  times. 

2.  Passing  eastward  from  the  Bosporus,  one  comes  to 
Asiatic  Turkey.  Of  the  natural  divisions  of  this  section,  that 
of  Anatolia  —  Anatolia  is  sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to 
Asiatic  Turkey  —  is  the  most  important  in  extent,  population 
and  natural  resources.  It  is  an  elevated  and  fertile  plateau 
enclosed  by  historic  mountain  ranges.  The  Armenian  up- 
lands present  another  plateau  of  limited  extent,  but  rugged  and 
crowned  by  "  the  tower-crested  Ararat,  the  converging  point 
of  three  empires."  In  the  Euphrates  section  are  the  vast  and 
fertile  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  This  latter  region  is  the  his- 
toric center  of  ancient  Accadian  and  Assyrian  culture,  as  well 
as  of  later  Moslem  power.  The  Syrian  region  is  so  well 
known  because  of  its  Biblical  associations  that  no  description 
is  needed.  On  the  whole,  Turkey  in  Asia  is  so  illy  supplied 
with  water  that  the  plains  and  many  of  the  valleys,  especially 
those  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  are  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  sandy  deserts  during  the  parching  droughts  of  summer. 
Those  ancient  provisions  for  irrigation,  which  once  made  it 
a  paradise  of  vegetation,  have  fallen  into  decay,  and  hence  the 
present  sparsity  of  population. 

3.  About  one-seventh  of  the  vast  peninsula  of  Arabia  is 
included  in  the  two  Turkish  provinces  of  Hejdz  and  Yemen 
bordering  on  the  Red  Sea.     Within  their  confines  are  found 


410  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  two  great  points  of  religious  interest  of  the  Mohammedan 
world,  the  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina.  Their  natural  fea- 
tures, population  and  religion  are  so  similar  to  those  of  Arabia 
that  a  further  account  of  them  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XIX. 

4.  Tripoli  and  Bengasi,  lying  on  the  northern  shores  of 
Africa,  are  as  large  as  Texas  and  the  New  England  States 
plus  New  York.  While  this  region  is  less  mountainous  than 
the  Barbary  States,  there  are  found  here  two  chains  parallel 
to  the  coast  and  not  rising  higher  than  4,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  Having  no  rivers,  and  with  little  rain,  the  summers  are 
long  and  hot ;  and  though  the  dew  is  heavy  and  sufficient  to 
cause  vegetation  in  favored  localities,  the  land  on  the  whole  is 
not  fertile.  In  consequence  sheep  and  cattle  rearing  is  the 
chief  occupation,  now  that  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  has 
stopped  the  demand  for  many  of  the  commodities  supporting 
the  traffic.  Its  capital  is  still  the  point  of  arrival  and  departure 
of  camel  caravans  which  cross  the  deserts  to  the  Sudan  States. 

5.  The  climate  of  these  lands  is  quite  varied,  ranging  from 
the  severe  cold  of  European  Turkey  and  the  highlands  of  Ar- 
menia to  the  almost  equatorial  heat  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the 
scorching  rays  of  the  sun  in  southern  Mesopotamia,  which  is 
so  intense  that  people  usually  pass  the  summer  days  in  under- 
ground chambers.  The  winters  are  in  general  quite  pleasant, 
though  in  eastern  Anatolia  the  mercury  often  falls  to  15°  or 
20°  F.  below  zero.  Malaria  is  prevalent  in  some  of  the  low 
and  hot  regions,  especially  in  the  swampy  sections  of  Mesopo- 
tamia and  along  the  Red  Sea. 

III.  Races  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  —  Common  usage 
gives  the  one  name  of  Turk  to  all  the  peoples  living  in  this 
extensive  territory,  numbering  approximately  23,834,500,  ex- 
clusive of  inhabitants  of  countries  only  nominally  tributary  to 
Turkey.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  people  themselves  disclaim 
that  name,  though  if  prefixed  by  the  adjective  Osmanli,  it  is 
not  so  seriously  objected  to.  The  real  Turk  is  found  in  the 
remote  eastern  part  of  Asia,  whom  we  speak  of  as  the  Uigur 
or  Tatar.     The  natives  of  Turkey  claim  that  with  the  intro- 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  4I I 

duction  of  Arabo-Persian  culture,  they  no  longer  deserve  to 
be  classed  with  people  who  are  so  lacking  in  civilization. 

I.  The  largest  element  in  the  Empire  is  made  up  of  Osman- 
lis  or  Ottomans.  Their  ancestors  poured  into  this  region  from 
Central  Asia  at  different  periods  in  the  past.  A  rather  old  es- 
timate of  their  number  —  which  can  at  best  only  be  guessed 
at  —  is  9,000,000.  "  The  Ottoman  peasant  of  Asia  Minor  is 
a  man  far  different  from  the  ordinary  conception.  As  a  rule 
quite  peacefully  inclined,  a  hard  worker,  a  faithful  servant, 
courteous  and  dignified  in  his  bearing,  rather  proud  of  his  as- 
sumed superiority  to  the  '  meanness  of  his  Christian  fellows/ 
there  is  still  an  inherent  element  of  ferocity  in  his  nature ;  and 
when  religious  fanaticism  is  aroused,  his  fatalism  makes  him  a 
most  dreaded  enemy.  The  Ottoman  of  the  city  is,  however, 
quite  a  different  man.  With  as  much  Christian  as  Tatar  blood 
in  his  veins  and  influenced  by  the  strife  of  Western  and  Eas- 
tern civilization,  studiously  polite,  easily  adapting  himself  to 
the  circumstances  of  his  associates,  he  develops  a  power  of 
intrigue,  a  facility  for  deception,  an  unblushing  delight  in 
bribery  that  makes  him  the  scorn  of  his  sturdy  compatriot  of 
Anatolia.  There  are  notable  exceptions;  but  as  a  rule  —  and 
this  is  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  traveled  most  in  the  in- 
terior of  Asiatic  Turkey  —  the  native,  unadulterated  Ottoman 
Turk  is  a  man  with  many  noble  characteristics,  and  present- 
ing great  possibilities  for  Christian  influence. 

"  Of  the  other  elements  making  up  the  Moslem  population 
the  most  important  races  in  Asia  are  the  Arabs  and  Kurds ;  in 
Europe,  the  Albanians.  As  a  rule  they  are  hostile  to  the 
Turks,  feeling  that  the  latter  are  oppressors,  and  even  their 
recognition  of  the  Sultan  or  Caliph  is  weakened  by  the  race 
enmity  and  the  sense  of  subjection.  Next  to  them  in  im- 
portance are  the  Circassians,  including  the  Circassians  proper 
and  the  Lazes,  who  have  driven  Russian  rule  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  Asia  Minor.  They  furnish  the  most  turbulent  ele- 
ment of  the  population,  and  by  far  the  greater  amount  of  the 
depredations  committed  in  Asia  Minor  are  by  them.     There 


412  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

are  also  large  numbers  of  Turkomans,  —  another  Turkish  race, 
—  chiefly  found  in  northern  Syria.  The  Druses  and  Nusai- 
riyeh  of  Syria  and  the  Yezidees  of  Mesopotamia  probably  rep- 
resent the  small  remnant  of  the  ancient  paganism  of  the 
Levant  which  has  accepted  the  form,  though  not  the  spirit, 
of  Mohammedanism.  The  original  races  of  Asia  Minor  are 
represented  among  the  Mohammedans  by  a  number  of  tribes 
of  somewhat  uncertain  extent  and  character,  found  chiefly  in 
the  mountains  of  the  western  part.  Such  are  the  Yuruks  of 
Bithynia  and  the  Xeibecks  of  the  region  of  Smyrna." 

2.  The  Christians  of  Turkey  include  those  divisions  named 
in  Section  IV  immediately  following,  together  with  minor 
subdivisions  not  mentioned  there.  Little  need  be  said  of  the 
characteristics  of  Turkey's  Christians,  beyond  the  two  most 
numerous  subdivisions.  Again  quoting  "  The  Encyclopaedia 
of  Missions,"  the  source  used  above :  "  The  Armenians  are 
a  race  by  themselves,  as  distinct  as  at  any  time  in  their  history. 
Formerly  occupying  the  northeastern  part  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
they  have  spread  until  they  are  found  all  over  Asia  Minor. 
The  Greeks  are  found  chiefly  in  western  Asia  Minor  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  They,  too,  have  kept  their  race 
distinctions  very  sharp,  and  retain  many  of  the  characteristics 
of  their  ancestors,  who  founded  the  Euxine  and  Doric  colo- 
nies. Sharp,  keen  in  enterprise  and  speculation,  the  commerce 
of  Turkey  is  largely  in  their  hands,  while  the  traders  and  bank- 
ers are  chiefly  Armenians.  Those  in  the  interior  are  of  a 
higher  grade  of  character  than  those  at  the  seaboard." 

In  the  latest  volume  on  Turkey,  Dr.  Dwight's  "  Constanti- 
nople and  Its  Problems,"  the  importance  of  Christians  to  the 
Empire,  notwithstanding  their  small  numbers,  is  thus  stated : 
"  From  the  beginning  of  Turkish  history  very  many  of  the 
greatest  men  of  the  Empire  have  been  of  Christian  origin  — 
men  who  took  Mohammedan  names  and  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion as  stepping-stones  to  greatness.  To-day  the  army  de- 
pends on  foreign  Christians  for  its  organization,  as  well  as  for 
its  arms  and  ammunition,  and  to  a  considerable  degree  for  the 


TURKEY,    OR   THE   OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  4I3 

instruction  of  its  officers.  The  Treasury  would  go  to  pieces, 
if  Christian  counsellors  were  not  at  the  side  of  the  Minister  of 
Finance.  Rarely  does  a  wealthy  Turk  venture  to  keep  up  an 
establishment  without  a  Christian  to  manage  his  accounts.  A 
Mohammedan  banking  house  is  almost  unthinkable.  The 
most  important  book-publishing  houses  for  Mohammedan  lit- 
erature are  owned  by  Christians,  and  the  most  influential  Mo- 
hammedan newspapers  are  Christian  property.  No  Moslem 
machinist  succeeds  unless  he  has  a  Christian  for  chief.  The 
architect  who  builds  the  mosque  is  a  Christian.  Turkish 
steamers  are  bought  from  abroad,  or  if  built  at  great  expense 
in  Turkey,  the  man  who  makes  the  plan  and  the  builder  who 
follows  it  are  both  Christians.  The  steamers  are  rarely  trusted 
to  Moslem  captains,  and  when  they  are,  they  can  be  recognized 
as  far  as  they  can  be  seen  by  their  dilapidation  and  disorder." 
Such  considerations  show  how  strategic  is  the  work  for  the 
real  leaders  of  the  Empire,  the  Christians. 

IV.  Religion.  —  In  order  to  claim  legal  existence  the 
various  religions  must  be  recognized  by  the  Porte  and  be  rep- 
resented in  the  councils  of  the  Empire.  Those  non-Moham- 
medan creeds  that  are  so  recognized  are  as  follows :  ( i ) 
"  Latins,  Franks  or  Catholics,  who  use  the  Roman  Liturgy, 
consisting  of  the  descendants  of  the  Genoese  and  Venetian 
settlers  in  the  Empire,  and  proselytes  among  Armenians ;  Bul- 
garians and  others.  (2)  Greeks.  (3)  Armenians.  (4)  Syr- 
ians and  United  Chaldeans.  (5)  Maronites  under  a  Patriarch 
at  Kanobin  in  Mount  Lebanon.  (6)  Protestants,  consisting 
of  converts  chiefly  among  the  Armenians.  (7)  Jews.  These 
seven  religious  bodies  are  invested  with  the  privilege  of  pos- 
sessing their  own  ecclesiastical  rule.  The  Bishops  and  Patri- 
archs of  the  Greeks  and  Armenians,  and  the  Chacham-Baschi, 
or  high-rabbi  of  the  Jews,  possess,  in  consequence  of  those 
functions,  considerable  influence."  A  few  of  these  deserve 
particular  mention,  as  well  as  two  divisions  of  Mohammedan- 
ism. 

I.     The  Sunnite  division  of  the  Moslem  world  here  finds  its 


4i4  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

greatest  stronghold.  As  stated  in  the  previous  chapter,  they 
hold  that  Mohammed's  successor  should  be  elected  instead  of 
following  through  the  succession  of  the  prophet's  son-in-law, 
Ali.  They  regard  and  call  themselves  Orthodox,  because  in 
their  rule  of  faith  and  manners  they  follow  the  traditionary 
teaching  of  the  Prophet,  which  was  added  to  the  inspired 
Koran.  "  According  to  Islam  the  human  mind  is  incapable  of 
attaining  light  in  law  or  religion,  but  through  the  Prophet  all 
expressions  of  God's  will  are  equally  met.  Reason  and  con- 
science are  here  of  no  value ;  memory  is  all.  Hell-fire  is  an 
award  due  a;like  to  him  that  prays  without  being  properly 
washed  and  to  him  that  denies  the  word  of  the  Prophet." 
Their  clergy  are  subordinate  to  the  Sheik-ul-Islam ;  their  of- 
ficers are  hereditary  and  they  can  be  removed  only  by  Im- 
perial order.  It  is  hardly  proper,  however,  to  speak  of  a 
separate  class  recognized  as  a  priesthood,  as  such  a  one  hardly 
exists  in  Turkey.  These  Mohammedans  encourage  public  ed- 
ucation, and  schools  have  consequently  been  long  established 
in  the  largest  Turkish  towns.  So-called  colleges  and  public 
libraries  are  likewise  attached  to  most  of  the  leading  mosques, 
but  the  instruction  furnished  by  the  Mohammedans  is  rather 
limited.  The  "  Statesman's  Year  Book "  gives  the  number 
of  mosques  throughout  the  Empire  as  2,120  with  which  are 
connected  1,780  elementary  free  schools.  Three-fourths  of 
the  urban  property  of  the  Empire  is  supposed  to  be  that  which 
has  been  bequeathed  to  the  Church.  Naturally,  this  gives 
Mohammedanism  very  large  power.  While  nominal  liberty 
to  profess  the  recognized  faiths  is  granted,  those  Moslems  who 
formerly  turned  aside  from  the  religion  of  their  ancestors  fre- 
quently disappeared  from  public  view  in  consequence. 

A  movement  which  has  made  considerable  progress  in 
Northern  Africa  had  its  widest  development  in  Tripoli  and  is 
known  as  the  Se^iiissi  fraternity.  Mohammed  es-Senussi  be- 
came famous  about  1830  in  Fez  because  of  his  great  sanctity. 
He  established  a  brotherhood,  holding  most  austere  and  fanat- 
ical doctrines  with  the  object  of  uniting  Mohammedans  in  hos- 


TURKEY,    OR   THE   OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  415 

tility  and  resistance  to  foreign  and  infidel  influences.  Subse- 
quent to  the  death  in  1885  of  the  Egyptian  Mahdi,  of  whom 
their  leader,  or  Mahdi,  was  a  rival,  they  extended  their  in- 
fluence and  power  into  the  Sudan,  and  to-day  they  are  a  lead- 
ing element  in  Mohammedan  movements  of  North  Africa. 

2.  Next  in  number  to  the  Mohammedans  comes  the  Greek 
or  Orthodox  Church,  which  is  a  direct  descendant  of  the  By- 
zantine Church.  "  In  general  doctrine,  as  found  in  the  creeds 
and  confessions,  it  is  in  sympathy  with  the  Protestant  Church, 
and  only  separated  from  the  Armenian  by  a  distinction  so 
shadowy  that  it  is  claimed  by  some  Armenians  that  the  theo- 
logical difference  was  a  pretext  rather  than  a  cause  for  the 
separation,  the  real  reason  lying  in  the  effort  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Church  to  compel  the  Armenians  to  use  the  Greek  Lit- 
urgy." The  position  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Turkey  is  to-day 
primarily  a  political  one,  it  being  said  that  a  stranger  could 
hardly  tell  the  difference  between  its  services  and  those  of  the 
Armenians.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  who  is  nominally  the  head  of  all 
branches  of  the  Greek  Church,  is  really  so.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  Synods  of  Russia,  Greece  and  Servia,  as  well  as  other 
branches,  claim  absolute  independence.  They  may  number  in 
the  Turkish  Empire  nearly  2,000,000. 

3.  Third  in  number  of  adherents  stands  the  Armenian 
Church  with  about  one  million  and  a  quarter  members.  Like 
the  Greek  Church,  this  faith  is  to-day  a  political  bond  giving 
unity  and  nationality  to  the  races  calling  themselves  Armen- 
ians, rather  than  a  form  of  religion.  Originating  from  the 
earlier  efforts  of  Gregory,  the  Illuminator,  this  Armenian  or 
Gregorian  Church  underwent  severe  persecutions  through  suc- 
ceeding centuries  until,  under  Mohammedan  rule,  it  gained  the 
right  to  a  political  organism.  The  leading  doctrines  so  much 
emphasized  in  earlier  days  have  to  do  mainly  with  forms  and 
with  worship.  The  two  tenets  originally  so  emphasized  are 
the  confession  of  both  one  nature  and  one  person  in  Christ,  and 
the  belief  that  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father  only.   This 


4l6  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

religion  has  influence  largely  because  of  the  greater  progres- 
siveness  of  the  Armenian  element  in  Turkey.  Just  as  they  are 
persevering  and  shrewd  in  financial  dealings  and  lovers  of 
liberty  as  well  as  of  education,  so  their  Church,  which  is  the 
rallying  standard,  so  to  speak,  of  their  nationality,  is  regarded 
with  respect  or  hatred.  The  Armenian  massacres  of  the  last 
decade  have  brought  this  Church  more  prominently  before  the 
public  than  any  other  ecclesiastical  body  in  Turkey. 

4.  The  Druses  of  Northern  Syria  are  a  small  Mohamme- 
dan sect  who  number  possibly  70,000.  They  believe  in  one 
God  before  whom  man  is  dumb  and  blind.  Ten  times  has  God 
revealed  himself  in  human  form.  Hakim  Biamr  Allah,  Caliph 
of  Egypt  some  nine  centuries  ago,  being  the  last  one  of  these 
revelations.  While  they  do  not  acknowledge  the  claims  of 
any  other  religion,  they  sanction  an  outward  profession  of  any 
faith  according  to  expediency,  and  hence  unite  with  the  Mo- 
hammedan and  Maronite  in  their  widely  divergent  rituals. 
They  do  not  desire  nor  admit  converts,  and  the  members  are 
required  to  keep  their  religion  sacred  and  concealed  if  neces- 
sary. Prayer  is  regarded  as  an  impertinent  interference  with 
the  Creator.  Polygamy  is  not  permitted,  and  a  number  of 
other  regulations  affecting  conduct  make  them  a  peculiar  peo- 
ple. 

5.  Smaller  churches  are  of  interest  despite  the  limited  num- 
ber of  adherents.  Among  them  are  the  Jacobites,  the  Maro- 
nites  of  Syria,  and  the  Chaldean  Christians,  who  are  Nestorians 
converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 


PART  II.  —  MISSIONARY 

While  African  countries  are  included  in  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire, they  will  be  considered  in  the  following  chapter,  and 
Arabia  in  Chapter  XIX.  Labors  in  European  Turkey  will 
also  be  treated  here. 

I.    The  Societies.  —  i.  Nationality  and  Number.  —  Those 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  4I7 

which  have  missionaries  in  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey  are 
the  following:  American  societies,  five;  British,  three.  In 
Syria  and  Palestine  there  are  representatives  of  four  American 
societies,  eleven  British  societies  and  two  German  societies. 
Besides,  there  are  five  British  societies  that  have  missiona- 
ries in  both  Turkey  and  Syria,  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,  the  London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity 
amongst  the  Jews  and  the  Church  of  Scotland  Jewish  Commit- 
tee. Thus  of  the  thirty  societies,  nine  are  American,  nineteen 
are  British  and  two  are  German. 

2.  Outstanding  Characteristics.  —  Notwithstanding  the 
considerable  number  of  organizations,  there  is  a  remarkable 
degree  of  comity,  so  that  the  committee  having  that  important 
matter  in  hand  at  the  late  Brummana  Conference  practically 
found  nothing  to  do.  In  Turkey  the  strongest  work  by  far  is 
that  of  the  American  Board,  which  expends  here  nearly  one- 
third  of  its  funds ;  in  Syria  the  Presbyterian  Board,  North,  has 
the  broadest  plans  and  most  effective  force;  while  in  Pales- 
tine the  Church  Missionary  Society  easily  stands  foremost. 
In  these  fields  of  the  Bible  are  some  of  the  very  strongest  edu- 
cational institutions  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  mission 
presses.  Very  appropriately  the  Bible  itself  is  the  most  potent 
agency  in  the  land  of  its  birth. 

II.  Classes  Labored  Among.  —  i.  First  may  be  placed 
the  Moslems,  who  constitute  the  vast  majority  of  the  popula- 
tion. Work  for  these  is  not  usually  done  in  public,  but  the 
law  does  not  interfere  with  private  interviews,  nor  with  oper- 
ations intended  for  non-Moslems  at  which  they  are  present  on 
their  own  initiative.  Thus  many  Mohammedans  attend  mis- 
sionary schools  and  colleges.  This  is  never  sought  by  the 
authorities  of  those  institutions ;  yet  if  such  students  apply, 
they  are  usually  received.  In  case  there  are  no  conversions, 
such  attendance  at  schools  and  meetings  is  ordinarily  winked  at 
by  the  civil  authorities.  If  conversions  follow,  the  situation 
completely  changes.     Though  the  death  penalty  may  not  be 


4l8  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Openly  visited  upon  such  perverts,  the  Government  often  sends 
the  men  on  miUtary  duty  to  a  distant  outpost  where  they  are 
subjected  to  peril.  If  they  recant,  all  goes  well ;  if  not,  per- 
secution may  be  followed  by  disappearance.  Some  of  the  few 
who  have  become  Christians  have  found  it  best  to  leave  their 
native  land  and  live  in  Christian  countries. 

In  the  nature  of  the  case  such  work  must  very  largely  be 
through  the  printed  page  and  by  private  intervieivs.  The  for- 
mer is  by  far  the  most  common.  Indeed,  missionaries  do  not 
encounter  special  difficulty  in  selling  Scriptures  to  Moslems; 
as  the  facts  that  Mohammed  refers  to  the  Bible  and  that  all 
Scriptures  are  received  with  reverence  and  with  ceremonially 
pure  hands  aid  in  their  careful  keeping. 

In  addition  to  the  Bible,  controversial  literature  is  of  great 
value.  As  a  pi-ominent  missionary  to  Mohammedans  has  re- 
cently said,  "  Controversy  is  not  evangelization  and  must  not 
take  its  place,  but  in  Moslem  lands  especially  it  holds  some- 
what the  same  relation  to  evangelization  that  plowing  does  to 
seed-sowing.  Books,  like  '  The  Balance  of  Truth,'  break  up 
the  soil,  stir  thought,  kill  stagnation,  convince  the  inquirer  and 
lead  him  to  take  a  decided  stand  for  the  truth.  Missionary 
work  as  regards  Moslems  is  impossible,  if  controversy  be  in- 
terdicted. Christianity  must  be  polemic  because  it  is  exclusive. 
Islam  is  in  one  sense  a  Christian  heresy  and  calls  for  wise  apol- 
ogetic. Islam  has  attacked  and  is  attacking  all  the  vital  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.  Weapons  are  drawn  from  every  ar- 
senal and  used  in  any  way,  so  long  as  they  may  be  made  to 
hit  the  cross  and  the  divinity  of  our  Lord.  Sophistry  is  too 
good  a  word  to  describe  the  mental  process  of  the  learned  Mos- 
lem when  engaged  in  argument.  Henry  Martyn  described  the 
tmollahs  of  Persia  as  a  *  compound  of  ignorance  and  bigotry ; 
all  access  to  the  one  is  hedged  up  by  the  other.'  "  It  will  be 
remembered  that  two  exceedingly  useful  tracts  employed  in 
this  way,  "  Sweet  First  Fruits  "  and  "  Beacon  of  Truth,"  were 
written  during  the  last  decade  by  a  native  Syrian  Christian, 
who  according  to  a  competent  authority,  has  done  more  there 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  419 

by  "  to  shake  the  whole  fabric  of  the  False  Prophet  than  all 
the  missionaries  since  Henry  Martyn." 

2.  Members  of  the  various  Oriental  Churches  are  the  open 
field  which  lies  before  the  various  societies.  The  bulk  of  the 
work  and  of  the  converts  are  from  the  Greek  and  Armenian 
Churches.  A  well-known  missionary  likens  the  former  to 
the  Greeks  of  St.  Paul's  day,  as  its  members  are  ever  ready 
to  hear  some  new  thing,  but  lack  stability  and  depth  of  con- 
viction. Consequently  fewer  converts  are  gained  from  that 
Communion.  The  same  authority  compares  the  Armenian 
Church  to  the  Jews,  who  have  a  genius  for  religion.  In  many 
respects  it  resembles  the  Church  of  England  more  closely  than 
it  does  that  of  Rome.  Much  that  might  be  said  of  the  Greek 
Church  is  equally  true  of  the  Armenian.  In  both,  the  liturgies 
are  enshrined  in  an  obsolete  dialect  that  makes  the  edification 
of  the  worshiper  practically  impossible. 

The  Greek  Church  is  more  apt  to  place  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  Protestantism  than  the  Armenian,  for  the  reason  that  a 
glorious  history  lies  behind  it,  and  those  who  imbibe  evan- 
gelical sentiments  are  regarded  as  traitors  to  the  national  or- 
ganization. They  are  not  only  excommunicated  and  anathe- 
matized in  consequence,  but  are  also  liable  to  social  ostracism, 
persecution  and  boycott.  Two  tendencies  are  very  marked  in 
the  Greek  Church,  due  to  the  wave  of  scepticism  and  infidel- 
ity arising  from  the  work  of  Koraes  and  his  coadjutors  a  cen- 
tury ago.  Not  only  did  they  initiate  an  archaeologico-liter- 
ary  renaissance,  but  they  likewise  brought  in  from  Western 
Europe  a  flood  of  immoral  literature  and  a  science  which  was 
opposed  to  revelation,  and  that  swept  their  young  men  into  the 
vortex  of  agnosticism  or  atheism.  "  Thus  the  stream  of  life 
flows  on  in  this  Communion,  consisting  of  two  distinct  cur- 
rents which  will  not  mingle  and  neither  of  which  has  force 
enough  to  overcome  and  control  the  other.  The  devout  and 
orthodox  are  mostly  ignorant  and  superstitious,  while  the  more 
intelligent  and  educated  bring  the  name  of  their  Church  into 
disrepute  by  their  irreligion  and  often  by  their  immorality. 


420  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Both  are  equally  loyal  to  the  outward  name  of  their  Church, 
and  both  are  equally  shy  of  the  plain  teachings  of  an  open 
gospel."  The  Bulgarian  branch  of  the  Greek  Church,  for  which 
the  American  Board  and  Methodist  Board,  North,  are  doing  so 
important  a  work,  differs  little  from  the  original  Church,  ex- 
cept that  its  members  have  so  strongly  imbibed  the  spirit  of  in- 
dependence that  it  cannot  easily  be  induced  to  follow  its  Greek 
neighbors.  Then,  too,  there  is  more  religious  freedom  pos- 
sible in  Bulgaria  than  in  Turkey  proper. 

In  the  Armenian  Church  there  is  little  spirituality.  "  Cen- 
turies of  oppression  by  a  race  of  unscrupulous  and  fanatical 
conquerors  have  driven  them  to  all  manner  of  subterfuge ;  and 
this  habitual  practice  of  deception  has  had  a  most  baleful  in- 
fluence on  their  spiritual,  moral,  social,  commercial,  domestic 
and  personal  character.  There  is,  however,  a  conserving  pow- 
er in  the  primitive  simplicity  of  Oriental  customs,  and,  still 
more,  a  seasoning  grace  in  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity." Five  other  difficulties  of  this  field  have  been  thus 
stated :  "  The  national  idea  that  the  Church  is  coextensive  with 
the  Armenian  race,  and  so  one  who  withdraws  from  the  Church 
rejects  his  nationality;  that  the  Church  is  already  Christian, 
and  consequently  that  the  Christian  life  has  little  relation  to 
the  Christian  profession;  the  difficulty  from  the  side  of  the 
Turkish  Government  in  erecting  buildings  and  in  maintaining 
Christian  and  educational  institutions  ;  the  existing  poverty  and 
oppression,  accompanied  by  Oriental  penuriousness ;  the  pres- 
ent turning  of  the  attention  of  young  men  to  the  Western 
world,  and  the  consequent  emigration  of  large  numbers  from 
the  ranks  of  the  laborers,  students  and  congregations.  This 
has  also  had  a  tendency  to  increase  salaries  of  helpers,  without 
a  corresponding  increase  in  the  ability  of  the  people  to  give." 
In  spite  of  these  factors,  the  religious  nature  of  the  people, 
their  acceptance  of  the  Bible  as  the  Word  of  God,  their  strong 
desire  for  education,  and  the  strategic  relation  of  the  Armen- 
ians to  their  neighbors  who  must  be  largely  leavened  through 
them,  have  made  missionary  labors  encouraging. 


TURKEY,,    OR   THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  42 1 

III.  Most  Successful  Methods.  —  i.  Education  has 
accomplished  more  toward  the  regeneration  of  these  lands 
than  anything  else.  While  it  has  been  very  broad,  especially 
in  the  higher  institutions,  it  has  likewise  been  thoroughly  per- 
meated with  Christianity.  Though  Robert  College  is  not  di- 
rectly connected  with  any  missionary  society,  it  "  has  exerted 
an  incalculable  influence  for  Christian  life  all  over  the  Em- 
pire. Among  its  graduates  are  many  of  the  most  prominent 
men  in  Bulgaria,  and  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  that 
that  nation  really  owes  its  existence  to  the  influence  exerted  by 
President  George  Washburn  and  his  associates.  Its  students 
have  included  representatives  of  twenty  nationalities,  and  its 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  is  unique  among  the  col- 
lege Associations  of  the  world  in  that  it  is  divided  into  four 
departments  according  to  the  prevailing  languages  spoken,  — . 
English,  Greek,  Armenian  and  Bulgarian."  The  Syrian  Prot- 
estant College  at  Beirut  is  likewise  independent,  though  in 
closest  sympathy  and  cooperation  with  the  Presbyterian  Board, 
North.  Concerning  the  College,  Mr.  John  R.  Mott  writes: 
"  This  is  one  of  the  three  most  important  institutions  in  all 
Asia.  In  fact  there  is  no  college  which  has  within  one  gener- 
ation accomplished  a  greater  work  and  which  to-day  has  a 
larger  opportunity.  It  has  practically  created  the  medical  pro- 
fession in  the  Levant.  It  has  been  the  most  influential  factor 
in  promoting  popular  education  in  Syria  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  East.  It  has  been  and  is  the  center  for  genuine  Chris- 
tian and  scientific  literature  in  all  that  region.  Fully  one- 
fourth  of  the  graduates  of  the  collegiate  department  have  en- 
tered Christian  work  either  as  preachers  or  as  teachers  in  Chris- 
tian schools."  In  less  degree  the  same  results  noted  in  the 
case  of  these  two  institutions  are  furnished  by  the  records  of 
the  American  Board's  colleges  at  Aintab,  Harpoot,  Samakov, 
Marsovan,  and  of  its  colleges  for  girls  at  Marash  and  Constan- 
tinople, as  well  as  of  the  less  ambitious  Bishop  Gobat  School  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  Beirut  Female  Semi- 
nary of  the  Presbyterians. 


422  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

2.  The  great  press  at  Beirut,  under  Presbyterian  manage- 
ment, is  a  factor  of  inestimable  importance  to  the  Arabic-speak- 
ing world,  as  is  suggested  in  the  last  report.  "  The  number 
of  pages  printed  during  the  past  year  was  24,882,680,  making 
the  total  since  the  beginning,  667,974,597;  of  these  pages, 
17,884,000  were  Arabic  Scriptures,  and  of  these  58,500  were 
bound;  8,193  copies  were  sold  in  Syria  and  34,657  in  Egypt. 
The  entire  number  of  books  and  tracts  sold  was  83,749,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that,  owing  to  alterations  and  repairs, 
the  presses  were  idle  for  more  than  two  months.  The  total 
number  of  Scriptures  sold  to  the  Russian  schools  in  Syria  and 
Palestine  during  the  year  has  been  4,0^6.  In  addition  to  these, 
they  have  bought  7,893  volumes  of  scientific  and  educational 
works."  Thus  Protestantism  is  aiding  the  Russian  Greek 
Church  toward  a  higher  life. 

Translational  and  other  literary  work  has  quite  kept  pace 
with  the  presses  of  Beirut  and  Constantinople.  The  late  Dr. 
Elias  Riggs,  who  served  in  Turkey  for  sixty-eight  years  with 
but  a  single  furlough,  was  acquainted  with  twenty  languages 
and  was  fluent  in  the  use  of  twelve.  His  literary  work  in  the 
line  of  Bible  translation,  periodical  editing,  hymnology,  etc., 
is  of  the  utmost  value,  and  is  supplemented  by  such  masters 
of  the  art  as  Eli  Smith,  Van  Dyck  and  Post.  The  Arabic- 
reading  Mohammedan  world,  from  Sierra  Leone  to  North 
China,  not  to  speak  of  its  own  populations,  is  under  obligation 
to  missionaries  of  Turkey. 

3.  Medicine  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  agencies  in  reach- 
ing hostile  Moslems.  Dr.  Post  of  Syria  sets  forth  very  clearly 
the  importance  of  medical  knowledge  in  these  lands :  "  The  in- 
tense fanaticism  of  Mohammedan  men  makes  direct  evangel- 
ism well-nigh  impossible.  Street  preaching  is  wholly  out  of 
the  question.  The  death-penalty  always  impends  over  a  con- 
vert from  Islam.  The  mere  fact  that  a  Moslem  is  reading  the 
Scriptures,  or  conferring  with  a  Christian,  exposes  him  to  most 
serious  peril.  But  Moslems  sicken  and  suffer  pain  Hke  other 
men.     And  notwithstanding  the   fatalism  which   leads  them 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  423 

to  attribute  disease  to  direct  divine  appointment,  they  have  a 
traditional  respect  for  doctors.  The  Arabians  of  Spain  and 
Africa  were  once  the  chief  depositaries  of  medical  learning 
and  skill.  Their  doctors  bore  the  honorable  title  of  hakim  — 
wise  man.  It  is  true  the  ancient  skill  is  lost.  The  native 
hakim  is  an  arrant  quack.  But  when  a  true  hakim  appears, 
armed  with  the  wonderful  appliances  of  modern  science  and 
art,  Mohammedans  are  ready  to  concede  to  him  the  honor 
which  belonged  to  their  illustrious  ancestors.  The  mission- 
ary physician  is  a  privileged  person  among  them,  and  when 
his  healing  work  is  done,  he  can  fearlessly  explain  to  them  the 
person  and  doctrines  of  Christ.  Mohammedan  women  are  no 
less  fanatical  and  far  more  difficult  of  access  than  men.  Med- 
ical missions,  however,  have  broken  down  this  barrier.  Under 
the  stress  of  pain  or  danger  the  doctor  is  called,  or  the  sick 
woman  comes  to  him,  and  so  hears  the  gospel  of  Christ.  Noth- 
ing is  more  encouraging  in  all  our  work  than  the  eagerness 
with  which  Mohammedan  and  Druse  men  and  women  listen  to 
the  story  of  Christ  from  the  lips  of  the  doctors  in  mission  hos- 
pitals." 

In  the  land  where  Jesus  set  so  many  demoniacs  free  has 
been  established  the  first  asylum  for  the  demented  of  the  mis- 
sion field,  the  Lebanon  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  of  which  Mr. 
T.  Waldemier  is  the  director.  It  is  at  Asfariyeh  at  the  foot  of 
Lebanon  and  is  built  on  the  cottage  plan.  Already  two  cot- 
tages with  a  capacity  of  twenty  men  and  as  many  women  are 
ready  for  occupancy.  Dr.  Maag  of  Ziirich,  a  nerve  special- 
ist, is  in  charge. 

IV.  Problems  of  the  Field.  —  i.  Emigration  of  multi- 
tudes, especially  among  the  Armenians  and  Syrians,  presents  a 
very  real  difficulty.  Its  cause  Dr.  H.  H.  Jessup  thus  states: 
"  Information  as  to  the  success  of  American  institutions  and  in- 
creasing facilities  for  cheap  ocean  travel  have  stirred  up  a 
spirit  of  restlessness  and  led  tens  of  thousands  of  the  strongest 
and  most  active  men  of  the  land  to  emigrate  to  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  South  America  and  Australia.     The  departure 


424  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  SO  many  men  has  had  a  disastrous  effect  on  the  wives  and 
children  left  behind."  In  the  case  of  those  who  have  come  to 
Western  lands  for  study,  or  even  to  prepare  for  the  ministry, 
the  effect  upon  them  is  not  helpful.  They  too  often  are  alien- 
ated from  their  people ;  they  become  accustomed  to  the  Occi- 
dental style  of  living  and  hence  demand  higher  salaries  than 
their  native  brethren  in  the  same  work ;  and  they  are  restive 
under  foreign  guidance.  A  few  of  them  have  even  raised  in 
Christian  countries  for  alleged  evangelistic  enterprises  at  home 
money  which  only  partially  reaches  the  object  for  which  it  is 
solicited.  The  Turkish  Empire  and  Persia  are  the  two  mis- 
sion lands  in  which  this  difficulty  is  most  acute. 

2.  The  Turkish  Government  is  an  ever  changing  problem. 
The  missionary  tries  to  live  according  to  its  laws,  but  finds 
himself  perpetually  hampered  in  his  work  in  consequence.  At 
the  1901  meeting  of  the  International  Missionary  Union,  Dr. 
E.  M.  Bliss  said :  "  Politically  the  situation  is  very  bad.  The 
Sultan,  a  prisoner  in  his  palace,  has  concentrated  everything 
on  himself,  and  controls  every  department  of  Government. 
He  has  spies  in  every  marketplace  and  compels  all  ministers 
to  report  directly  to  himself.  He  is  suspicious  of  everything 
and  everybody,  as  is  manifest  in  his  recent  instructions  not  to 
allow  typewriters  to  be  introduced  into  the  country,  lest  they 
be  used  for  the  duplication  of  dangerous  matter."  Press  cen- 
sorship is  most  inconvenient  and  obstructive;  religious  liberty 
is  more  nominal  than  actual,  especially  in  the  case  of  Moslems. 
What  Freeman  said  in  his  "  History  and  Conquest  of  the  Sar- 
acens "  is  still  true :  "  The  rule  of  the  Turk  is  not  government ; 
it  is  not  even  misgovernment.  It  is  the  domination  of  a  gang 
of  robbers." 

The  practical  problems  presented  by  such  a  Government  are 
mainly  threefold  in  their  obstructive  effect  upon  missions. 
(i)  Taxation,  though  the  undeniable  right  of  the  Sultan,  is  so 
oppressive  that  it  is  one  of  the  leading  causes  of  emigration, 
as  well  as  of  Sabbath  desecration. 

(2)  Among  the  Armenians,  especially,  the  spirit  of  revolu- 


TURKEY,    OR    THE   OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  425 

tion  has  been  awakened  by  centuries  of  oppressive  taxation  and 
innumerable  disqualifications  devised  by  an  unscrupulous  Gov- 
ernment. Undoubtedly  the  teachings  of  missionary  colleges 
have  aroused  their  students  to  a  sense  of  what  other  nations 
possess  that  is  denied  them.  This  feeling  is  strengthened  by 
letters  from  fellow-countrymen  living  in  lands  where  freedom 
prevails ;  and  as  a  result  of  Armenian  restlessness  and  asser- 
tion of  rights  and  Government  attempts  to  meet  the  rising  tide, 
the  blood  of  thousands  flows  in  the  Armenian  massacres,  so 
fresh  in  all  memories,  and  just  now  being  renewed. 

(3)  The  massacres  occasioned  the  loss  of  mission  property 
and  this  brought  the  missionaries  into  unpleasant  prominence 
at  the  Sublime  Porte,  where  the  United  States  Minister  has 
persisted  in  his  claim  until  the  indemnity  has  finally  been  paid. 
Naturally  the  Sultan  is  embittered  toward  those  who  have  cost 
him  so  much  irritation.  At  the  same  time  the  massacres  have 
been  the  means  of  endearing  the  brave  missionaries  to  hosts  of 
Armenians,  and  the  orphan  relief  work  that  has  since  that  time 
blessed  so  many  children  will  far  more  than  counterbalance 
any  loss  arising  from  those  sad  events. 

3.  Russia  is  always  an  ominous  cloud  on  the  missionary 
horizon.  Its  aggressions  are  both  political  and  religious. 
European  Turkey  is  the  center  of  most  of  the  political  uncer- 
tainty, and  Bulgaria  is  the  apple  of  discord.  The  recent  inva- 
sion of  Persia  by  the  Russian  Greek  Church  is  a  fact  in  Tur- 
key, as  witness  this  news  of  1900:  "  Russian  missionaries  are 
roaming  among  the  Armenians,  promising  them  that  if  they 
abandon  the  Gregorian  to  join  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church, 
they  will  be  protected  by  the  Czar  against  the  Kurds  and  other 
Moslems  better  than  they  are  protected  by  the  Sultan.  In  the 
villayet  of  Erzerum  more  than  5,000  Armenians  have  already 
passed  to  the  Muscovite  orthodoxy."  In  a  less  direct  way 
Russian  influence  is  being  used  to  guard  the  Greek  Church 
against  Protestantism.  Thus  a  Church  Missionary  Society 
representative  writes :  "  The  Greeks  have  had  for  many  years 
past  a  theological  seminary  at  the  Convent  of  the  Cross  just  out- 


426  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

side  Jerusalem.  Quite  recently  they  have  opened  a  large  col- 
lege in  a  fine  building  within  Jerusalem  itself  for  the  purpose, 
I  understand,  of  training  teachers  for  their  schools.  The 
Patriarchate  is  thus  providing  for  the  educational  w^ants  of 
the  Greek  communities  throughout  the  land  w^ith  the  view^,  no 
doubt,  of  making  them  independent  of  our  mission  schools." 
Another  missionary  says :  "  Russia  has  begun  in  Syria  the 
process  of  licking  preparatory  to  swallowing.  By  virtue  of 
her  Greek  orthodoxy  Russia  has  opened  some  300  schools  in 
orthodox  Syrian  communities,  and  is  subsidizing  them  to  the 
extent  of  about  $300,000  a  year.  They  pay  all  bills,  even  to 
those  for  books,  paper,  pencils  and  —  in  many  cases  —  cloth- 
ing. The  study  of  Russian  is  obligatory.  There  is  a  training 
school  for  young  men  in  Nazareth  and  one  for  young  women 
in  Bethlehem,  in  which  teachers  are  prepared  for  the  village 
schools.  The  most  promising  teachers  are  taken  to  Russia 
for  further  education,  whence  they  return  to  Syria  as  Russian 
citizens.  If  this  process  continues  for  a  few  years,  Russia  will 
have  revisionary  interests  in  Syria  which  no  power  on  earth 
can  deny  or  ignore."  What  effect  the  Kaiser's  recent  visit  to 
Palestine  and  the  subsequent  understanding  between  Germany 
and  Turkey  will  have  upon  Russia  and  the  cause  of  Protestant 
missions  cannot  yet  be  affirmed. 

4.  The  Roman  Catholics  furnish  another  occasion  of  fore- 
boding. They  have  granted  concessions  to  the  Greek  and  Ar- 
menian Churches  that  have  made  their  members  willing  to 
unite  themselves  to  Rome,  the  word  United  being  prefixed  to 
their  national  name.  The  main  concessions  are  three :  mar- 
riage of  the  secular  clergy,  use  of  the  national  language  in  the 
liturgy  and  of  both  elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
United  Greek  Church  is  most  numerous  in  European  Turkey, 
while  the  United  Armenian  Church  is  mainly  found  in  Asiatic 
Turkey. 

The  Jesuits  are  the  missionary  body  most  active  in  propa- 
gandism.  In  some  quarters  the  work  is  carried  on  with  lit- 
tle energy,  but  in  other  sections  "  they  have  gained  great  in- 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  427 

fluence  and  won  many  permanent  adherents  through  their  col- 
leges and  other  educational  establishments.  They  command 
large  sums  of  money  with  which  to  carry  on  these  institutions. 
Instruction  in  the  French  language  is  very  thorough,  as  a 
knowledge  of  that  tongue  is  considered  the  key  to  political  and 
social  preferment.  Instrumental  music  is  another  very  pop- 
ular means  for  gaining  influence.  In  other  departments  of 
education,  however,  they  are  often  superficial,  and  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  character-building  are  too  much  neglected." 
When  it  is  added  that  Romanists  are  told  by  their  leaders  that 
it  is  far  better  to  be  a  Moslem  than  a  Protestant,  one  can 
readily  see  how  harmful  such  bigotry  may  be  to  evangelical 
work. 

5.  Another  question  which  missionaries  have  from  the  first 
differed  upon  is  the  relation  that  Protestant  workers  and  con- 
verts should  maintain  toward  the  Oriental  Churches.  The 
ultra  position  of  the  Archbishop's  Mission  to  Assyrian  Chris- 
tians has  been  held  to  some  extent  by  all  missionaries.  The 
early  work  of  the  American  Board  was  intended  merely  to 
reform  these  venerable  Christian  communities  from  within. 
When  persecution  and  excommunication  followed,  this  course 
had  to  be  changed.  "  An  excommunicated  man  had  no  rights 
that  a  Turkish  court  could  recognize.  He  was  nobody ;  could 
neither  marry  nor  be  buried ;  could  not  buy,  sell  or  employ. 
He  had  absolutely  no  status  as  a  citizen.  The  result  was  that 
the  formation  of  a  Protestant  civil  community  became  abso- 
lutely essential  to  the  very  life  of  Protestantism."  While 
nearly  all  the  missionaries  follow  the  course  thus  made  neces- 
sary, a  great  deal  of  preaching  is  done  by  them  in  the  old 
churches,  and  many  natives  whose  spiritual  life  has  been  quick- 
ened by  Protestantism  remain  within  their  own  Church  as  a 
leaven  of  evangelical  earnestness.  In  the  American  Board's 
Turkish  missions  "  the  endeavor  has  been  made  to  let  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  people  express  itself  in  its  outward  form 
in  accordance  with  their  national  and  political  conditions. 
Hence  the  church  organization  is  not  pure  Congregationalism ; 


428  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

neither  has  it  adopted  the  form  of  any  particular  denomina- 
tion." 

6.  Self-support  can  hardly  be  called  a  problem  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  field,  especially  in  most  of  the  churches  of  the 
American  Board  and  of  the  Northern  Presbyterians.  The  war 
for  this  principle,  so  persistently  and  victoriously  waged  by  Dr. 
C.  H.  Wheeler,  has  made  Harpoot  and  its  environs  rank  with 
the  Karen  field  and  the  circuit  of  Dr.  Nevius  in  North  China. 
While  the  principle  has  been  recognized,  it  is  exceedingly  hard 
to  live  up  to  it  at  present,  owing  to  the  massacres  in  Eastern 
Turkey  and  to  emigration  in  Syria. 

V.  Accomplishment  and  Hopefulness.  —  i.  Hope  for 
the  future  is  based  upon  a  very  successful  past,  if  the  difficul- 
ties above  named  are  borne  in  mind.  What  Dr.  Jessup  sum- 
marized in  a  paper  read  at  the  World's  Congress  of  Missions, 
held  in  Chicago  in  1893,  is  still  truer  to-day:  "  Protestant  mis- 
sions have  given  the  entire  population  the  Bible  in  their  own 
tongue;  have  trained  hundreds  of  thousands  of  readers;  pub- 
lished thousands  of  useful  books ;  awakened  a  spirit  of  in- 
quiry; set  in  motion  educational  institutions  in  all  the  sects  in 
all  parts  of  the  Empire,  compelling  the  enemies  of  education  to 
become  its  friends,  and  the  most  conservative  of  Orientals  to 
devote  mosque  and  convent  property  to  the  founding  of  schools 
of  learning.  Protestantism  has  forced  Oriental  patriarchs, 
bishops  and  priests  to  modify,  if  not  abandon,  their  arbitrary 
oppressions  and  exactions.  Protestantism  has  made  ignorance 
unfashionable  and  persecution  disgraceful.  It  has  broken  the 
fetters  of  womanhood,  created  directly  and  indirectly  the  sys- 
tem of  female  education  spreading  over  the  Empire,  and  let  the 
light  into  unnumbered  homes  where  woman  before  had  been 
consigned  to  ignorance  and  inferiority.  The  work  it  has  done 
for  women  and  girls  would  of  itself  justify  all  the  labor  and 
expense  of  seventy  years,  and  is  a  noble  monument  to  the  wis- 
dom and  loving  sagacity  of  its  policy.  Every  evangelical 
church  is  a  provocation  and  stimulus  to  the  old  sects,  a  living 
epistle  to  the  Mohammedans  with  regard  to  the  true  nature  of 


TURKEY,    OR    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE  429 

original  apostolic  Christianity.  The  Protestant  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  Arabic  by  Drs.  Eli  Smith  and  Cornelius  Van 
Dyck  forced  the  Jesuit  Father  Von  Ham  to  make  another  trans- 
lation based  on  the  Vulgate.  Encouraged  by  the  spirit  of  re- 
form and  modern  progress,  even  the  Mohammedan  doctors  of 
Constantinople  have  issued  orders  that  all  editions  of  old  Mo- 
hammedan authors  which  recount  the  fabulous  stories  of  Mos- 
lem saints  and  Welys  are  to  be  expurgated  or  suppressed  and 
not  to  be  reprinted."  The  statistical  resume  of  work  done, 
found  in  Volume  II,  is  a  further  testimony  to  the  success  of 
evangelical  Christianity  in  the  lands  of  the  Bible  and  the 
stronghold  of  Islam. 

2.  But  in  addition  to  the  hopefulness  begotten  of  past  achieve- 
ment, there  is  enough  in  the  present  to  encourage  the  worker. 
Perhaps  the  most  recent  occurrence,  the  second  missionary  con- 
ference, convened  at  Bnunmana  on  the  slopes  of  Lebanon, 
August  13,  1901,  is  inclusive  of  all  the  hopeful  aspects  of  mis- 
sionary operations  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  Two  hundred  mis- 
sionaries, representing  more  than  a  third  of  the  societies  la- 
boring in  this  field,  met  for  days  of  closest  fellowship.  "  An 
American  Congregationalist  might  find  himself  a  tent-mate  of 
a  Scotch  Presbyterian,  a  German  Evangelical  and  an  English 
Episcopalian  or  Friend.  Their  fields  of  labor  will  be  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  Palestine  and  Egypt;  and  their  channel  of  ef- 
fort the  school,  the  press,  the  hospital  and  the  church.  Where- 
as a  former  conference  dealt  with  missionary  plans  and  meas- 
ures, it  was  determined  to  organize  this  one  on  the  model  of 
Northfield  or  Keswick.  Mr.  F.  B.  Meyer  of  London  accepted 
an  invitation  to  be  present  and  has  spoken  twice  a  day  on  the 
privileges  and  possibilities  of  life  in  Christ.  It  has  been  a 
most  tender,  heart-searching,  blessed  season.  We  had  come 
together  hungry,  expectant,  eager,  and  we  were  not  disap- 
pointed." The  chairman  of  the  Conference,  writing  of  Mr. 
Meyer  to  the  London  "  Christian,"  says :  "  His  teachings  will 
be  reechoed  along  the  Bosporus  and  the  Black  Sea,  the  Oron- 
tes,  the  Jordan  and  the  Nile.     He  has  left  the  seed-thought 


430  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

that  will  germinate  and  bring  forth  blessed  fruit  on  the  plains 
of  Galatia  and  Cilicia,  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  in  the  fer- 
tile soil  of  Egypt."  Far  above  all  material  results  rises  this 
arch  of  promise  for  lands  whose  central  points  are  Calvary  and 
the  upper  room  where  the  first  missionaries  gained  Pentecos- 
tal power,  and  whence  they  went  forth  to  conquer  the  world. 


XVII 
AFRICA 

PART  L— GENERAL 

This  continent  is  still  truthfully  characterized  as  to  its  great 
divisions  in  Professor  Drummond's  sententious  description : 
"  Three  distinct  Africas  are  known  to  the  modern  world 
—  North  Africa,  where  men  go  for  health ;  South  Africa, 
where  they  go  for  money;  and  Central  Africa,  where  they  go 
for  adventure.  The  first,  the  old  Africa  of  Augustine  and 
Carthage,  every  one  knows  from  history;  the  geography  of 
the  second,  the  Africa  of  the  Zulu  and  the  diamond,  has  been 
taught  us  by  two  universal  educators  —  war  and  the  Stock 
Exchange ;  but  our  knowledge  of  the  third,  the  Africa  of  Liv- 
ingstone and  Stanley,  is  still  fitly  symbolized  by  the  vacant 
look  upon  our  maps  which  tells  how  long  this  mysterious  land 
has  kept  its  secret."  Though  this  "  vacant  look  "  is  not  so 
marked  as  when  the  latest  edition  of  "  Tropical  Africa  "  was 
issued,  there  is  still  much  land  to  be  explored  and  continents 
within  a  continent  wait  to  be  occupied  by  the  Church  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

I.  Africa  Geographical.  —  i.  Area  and  Continental 
Rank.  —  This  continent  stands  second  only  to  Asia  in  size, 
if  the  two  Americas  be  reckoned  separately.  With  an  area  of 
from  eleven  and  a  quarter  to  twelve  million  square  miles,  it 
could  accommodate  Europe  or  the  United  States  thrice  over 
and  still  have  space  to  spare;  while  in  order  to  cover  its  sur- 
face North  America  would  have  to  be  spread  out  upon  it  one 
and  a  half  times. 

431 


432  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Though  its  1 6, 1  GO  miles  of  coast-line  place  it  after  Asia, 
Europe  and  South  America  in  length  of  shore,  its  mean  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  417  miles,  is  excelled  only  by  Asia's  482 
miles.  This  latter  obstacle  to  accessibility  is  partly  overcome, 
however,  by  its  extensive  waterways. 

The  fact  of  its  having  within  the  tropics  seven-tenths  of  its 
area  is  relieved  by  its  mean  elevation,  2,035  f^^^'  surpassed  on- 
ly by  Asia's  average,  3,085  feet  above  sea  level. 

According  to  the  last  issue  of  Wagner  and  Supan's  "  Die 
Bevolkerung  der  Erde,"  now  ten  years  old,  Africa's  popula- 
tion stands  next  to  that  of  Asia  and  Europe,  equaling  the  pop- 
ulation of  North  America  plus  that  of  South  America  twice 
over.  More  recent  statistics  differ  from  the  Wagner-Supan 
estimate  of  163,950,000  for  the  entire  continent.  Thus 
Scobel's  "  Geographisches  Handbuch,"  1899,  gives  the  popula- 
tion as  161,993,000,  while  Professor  Keane's  "Africa,"  1895, 
reduces  it  to  138,462,000,  and  the  "  International  Geography," 
1900,  places  the  number  at  148,420,601. 

In  point  of  density  Wagner  and  Supan  give  thirteen  per- 
sons per  square  mile  to  Africa,  while  North  America  has 
eleven,  Asia  forty-nine  and  Europe  ninety-six.  The  "  Inter- 
national Geography  "  would  diminish  this  average  density  of 
population  to  12.9  per  square  mile. 

When  regarded  from  a  religious  viewpoint  Africa  stands 
foremost  as  a  heathen  continent ;  since  nowhere  else  is  found 
so  large  a  number  of  persons  with  no  sacred  books  and  no 
formulated  system  of  morality. 

2.  Configuration  and  Relief.  —  The  union  of  the  axes  of 
Africa's  northern  and  southern  portions  would  form  an  in- 
verted letter  ~\  the  horizontal  limb  of  which  bisects  the  arid 
or  desert  portion  of  the  continent  inhabited  mainly  by  Mo- 
hammedans ;  while  the  perpendicular  limb  divides  the  southern 
fertile  half  of  Africa  where  population  is  largely  composed  of 
heathen  negroes. 

The  general  relief  of  the  continent  is,  roughly  speaking,  that 
of  two  oval  platters  placed  at  right  angles  each  to  the  other, 


AFRICA  433 

the  southern  one  being  slightly  higher  than  that  representing 
North  Africa  and  overlapping  it.  The  great  southern  plateau 
has  for  the  most  part  an  elevation  of  little  less  than  4,000  feet ; 
but  the  northern  half  of  Africa  has  comparatively  little  land 
at  a  greater  elevation  than  2,000  feet  above  the  sea.  In  one 
respect  the  two  sections  are  alike,  viz.,  that  the  rims  of  the  two 
continental  platters  are  bordered  by  two  steps.  The  first  is  the 
low  coastline,  in  some  places  broad,  at  others  hardly  more  than 
an  ample  beach.  This  is  the  dead  line  of  many  a  traveler  and 
missionary,  because  of  its  malignant  fevers.  Behind  lies  a 
low  plateau,  "  the  height  of  the  Scottish  Grampians."  From 
this  second  step  one  ascends  the  platter-rim,  the  "  higher 
plateau  covering  the  country  for  thousands  of  miles  with 
mountain  and  valley."  Except  in  the  North  and  the  South- 
east, however,  there  is  a  marked  absence  of  mountain  ranges, 
though  occasional  isolated  peaks  or  irregular  groups  of  moun- 
tains occur. 

3.  African  Rivers.  —  A  multitude  of  short  streams  cut  their 
way  through  the  continental  rim  in  their  haste  to  reach  the  sea, 
and  many  more  within  the  encircling  mountains  live  their  brief 
life  out  with  the  short  rainy  season  of  the  drier  regions. 

There  are,  however,  four  majestic  rivers,  prolonged  because 
of  the  confining  continental  border,  that  constitute  the  great 
arteries  of  interior  Africa's  life,  and  are  notable  also  among 
the  rivers  of  the  world.  These  are  the  Zambezi,  Niger,  Congo 
and  Nile, 

The  longest  river,  probably,  in  the  eastern  hemisphere  and 
certainly  the  most  important  one  in  Africa  is  the  Nile.  In  its 
head-waters  it  has  been  for  ages  the  river  of  mystery;  and  in 
history  and  archaeology  its  lower  portion  has  been  peerless. 
Without  the  Nile,  Egypt  would  have  been  a  desert  waste 
instead  of  the  cradle  of  a  marvelous  civilization  whose  gigan- 
tic ruins  hold  the  spectator  spellbound  after  the  lapse  of  mil- 
lenniums ;  and  to-day  that  country  is  as  truly  the  "  Gift  of  the 
River  "  as  when  Herodotus  so  described  it.  Receiving  its  in- 
itial impulse  from  the  inland  sea,  Victoria  Nyanza,  it  hastens 


434  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

down  from  its  lofty  birthplace  by  extensive  rapids  and  Niagara 
leaps  to  take  its  leisurely  way  through  the  level  lower  course. 
Despite  its  many  cataracts,  innumerable  sinuosities,  sandbanks, 
marshes  and  enormous  masses  of  floating  vegetation,  it  is  es- 
timated that  3,100  miles  in  a  total  of  3,670  are  available  for 
navigation.  It  is  alike  the  pathway  of  modern  armies  as  they 
advance  southward  to  help  in  healing  "  the  open  sore  of  the 
world,"  or  strive  to  crush  out  a  fanaticism  defying  a  beneficent 
civilization,  and  of  the  Christian  missionary  as  he  brings  to 
Africa's  heart  a  diviner  healing. 

4.  The  most  important  lakes  of  the  continent  are  likewise 
four  in  number.  Three  of  these,  Nyassa,  Tanganyika  and  Vic- 
toria Nyansa,  form  a  nearly  contiguous  chain  of  waterways, 
and  their  occupation  by  missionary  societies  is  a  partial  realiza- 
tion of  the  veteran  Krapf's  "  Apostle's  Street "  to  extend 
through  the  length  of  Africa.  The  first  of  these  lakes  is  about 
400  miles  long,  with  an  average  width  of  twenty-five  miles, 
and  is  to  be  connected  with  Tanganyika  by  the  famous  Steven- 
son Road.  It  is  the  special  field  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land. The  shores  of  Tanganyika,  which  is  of  the  same  approx- 
imate size  as  the  lake  just  named,  are  densely  peopled  by  va- 
rious Bantu  tribes.  The  London  Mission  became  especially  re- 
sponsible for  the  work  here.  Victoria  Nyanza  is  Africa's  larg- 
est lake,  and  has  the  proportions  of  an  inland  sea,  standing  sec- 
ond only  to  Lake  Superior,  the  largest  on  the  globe.  Its  area 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  Ireland,  or  of  Maine  and  Rhode  Island 
combined.  The  districts  around  the  lake  are  among  the  most 
populous  in  Africa,  and  its  shores  are  the  scene  of  the  wonder- 
ful triumphs  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society.  Lake  Chad 
is  segregated  from  this  lacustrine  chain,  and  lies  almost  at  the 
center  of  Africa's  northern  half.  Though  having  no  perma- 
nent outlet,  its  waters  are  perfectly  fresh.  Its  eastern  portion 
is  shallow,  and  contains  archipelagoes  of  isles  and  islets. 

5.  Characteristic  Regions.  —  An  account  of  the  several  coun- 
tries of  Africa  cannot  be  given  in  this  brief  sketch,  but  must  be 
sought  elsewhere.    A  glance  at  four  typical  regions  will  give 


AFRICA  435 

one  a  fair  idea,  however,  of  the  African  missionary's  environ- 
ment. 

(i)  The  deserts  of  this  continent  are  very  extensive,  but 
they  have  been  Httle  apprehended  by  the  average  reader.  The 
leading  ones  are  the  Sahara  —  properly  an  Arabic  dissyllable, 
Sah'ra,  signifying  an  uninhabitable  waste  —  and  the  Kalahari, 
meaning  "  the  tormenting  desert,"  of  Southwestern  Africa. 
The  Sahara  is  the  largest  one  on  the  globe,  and  constitutes  the 
western  end  of  the  great  desert  belt,  stretching  diagonally 
across  the  Old  World  from  the  Mongolian  Gobi  to  the  West 
African  coast.  Its  area  is  almost  precisely  that  of  the  United 
States,  including  Alaska;  but  this  expanse  is  not  wholly  a 
waste,  or  a  vast  monotonous  level.  The  Kalahari  scarcely  de- 
serves the  name  of  desert,  since  large  portions  of  it  are  periodi- 
cally covered  with  vegetation,  and  its  thorny  thickets  harbor 
quantities  of  game.  The  inhabitants  are  either  nomadic  hun- 
ters, or  keep  cattle  and  grow  corn. 

(2)  The  steppes  of  Africa  constitute  a  broad  fringe  along 
the  northern  and  southern  borders  of  the  Sahara,  occupy  the 
entire  eastern  horn  of  the  continent,  —  British  and  Italian 
Somali-land,  —  cover  a  district  of  German  East  Africa  midway 
between  Lake  Tanganyika  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  consti- 
tute a  large  part  of  Central-Southern  Africa.  What  has  just 
been  said  of  the  Kalahari  is  equally  applicable  to  these  steppes. 
Vegetation  is  more  extensive,  thorny  acacias  abound,  and  the 
dum  or  hyphsene,  a  species  of  palm,  makes  its  appearance. 
There  is  almost  no  mission  work  carried  on  in  these  regions. 

(3)  Savannas,  grass-covered  and  nearly  treeless,  occupy  a 
large  share  of  tropical  Africa.  They  extend  "  from  the  Sene- 
gal in  the  Northwest  to  Abyssinia  in  the  Northeast,  and  thence 
through  East  Africa  round  the  western  forest  region  until  they 
reach  the  west  coast  again  south  of  the  Congo.  Trees  are 
usually  found  along  the  course  of  the  streams,  where  they  form 
what  are  known  as  '  gallery  forests,'  and  are  often  dotted  over 
the  surface  in  groups,  giving  it  a  park-like  appearance.  The 
savanna  regions  are  characterized  especially  by  the  massive 


436  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

baobab  tree,  and  in  the  dryer  parts  by  the  curious  candelabra- 
like  euphorbia. 

In  much  of  the  region  thin  forests  prevail,  of  which  Drum- 
mond  gives  this  typical  picture.  "  Clothe  the  mountainous 
plateaux  with  endless  forest  —  not  grand  umbrageous  forest 
like  the  forests  of  South  America,  nor  matted  jungle  like  the 
forests  of  India ;  but  with  thin,  rather  weak  forest  —  with  forest 
of  low  trees,  whose  half-grown  trunks  and  scanty  leaves  offer 
no  shade  from  the  tropical  sun.  Nor  is  there  anything  in  these 
trees  to  the  casual  eye  to  remind  you  that  you  are  in  the  tropics. 
Here  and  there  one  comes  upon  a  borassus  or  fan-palm,  a  can- 
delabra-like euphorbia,  a  mimosa  aflame  with  color,  or  a  sepul- 
chral baobab.  A  close  inspection  also  will  discover  curious 
creepers  and  climbers;  and  among  the  branches  strange  or- 
chids hide  their  eccentric  flowers.  But  the  outward  type  of 
tree  is  the  same  as  we  have  at  home  —  trees  resembling  the  ash, 
the  beech  and  the  elm,  only  seldom  so  large,  except  by  the 
streams,  and  never  so  beautiful.  Day  after  day  you  may  wan- 
der through  these  forests  with  nothing  except  the  climate  to 
remind  you  of  where  you  are.  The  beasts,  to  be  sure,  are  dif- 
ferent, but  unless  you  watch  for  them  you  will  seldom  see  any ; 
the  birds  are  different,  but  you  rarely  hear  them ;  and  as  for  the 
rocks,  they  are  our  own  familiar  gneisses  and  granites,  with 
honest  basalt-dykes  boring  through  them,  and  leopard-skin 
lichens  staining  their  weathered  sides.  Thousands  and  thou- 
sands of  miles,  then,  of  vast  thin  forest,  shadeless,  trackless, 
voiceless  —  forest  in  mountain  and  forest  in  plain  —  this  is 
East-Central  Africa." 

(4)  The  western  region  of  primeval  forests  stretches  along 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  eastward  almost 
to  the  Victoria  Nyanza ;  it  also  occupies  most  of  the  Congo 
State.  These  dense  woods  likewise  occur  on  the  east  coast 
and  generally  on  the  slopes  of  mountains  exposed  to  moist 
winds  from  the  ocean.  Livingstone,  describing  this  region, 
writes;  "  Into  these  forests  the  sun,  though  vertical,  cannot 
penetrate,  except  by  sending  down  at  midday  thin  pencils  of 


AFRICA  ^  437 

rays  into  the  gloom.  The  rain-water  stands  for  months  in 
stagnant  pools  made  by  the  feet  of  elephants.  The  climbing 
plants,  from  the  size  of  a  whipcord  to  a  man-of-war's  hawser, 
are  so  numerous  that  the  ancient  path  is  the  only  passage. 
When  one  of  the  giant  trees  falls  across  the  road,  it  forms 
a  wall  breast-high  to  be  climbed  over,  and  the  mass  of  tangled 
ropes  brought  down  makes  cutting  a  path  round  it  a  work  of 
time  which  travelers  never  undertake." 

6.  Traveling  in  Africa.  —  This  is  much  the  same  for  all, 
save  that  the  missionary  proceeds  with  smaller  retinues  and 
with  a  minimum  of  severity  toward  his  carriers  and  those 
through  whose  territory  he  passes.  Along  the  coasts  and  on 
the  great  river-stretches  steamers  are  available,  though  river 
travel  is  made  bitter  by  tedious  portages  around  cataracts. 
Camel  caravans  are  occasionally  made  use  of  in  the  North, 
while  South  African  missionaries  rely  largely  upon  immense 
covered  wagons,  each  drawn  by  a  small  herd  of  oxen.  Even 
the  bicycle  is  occasionally  used  in  the  South  and  to  some  extent 
by  Uganda  missionaries,  who  likewise  utilize  the  railroad  when 
possible.  While  the  fare  is  exorbitant  along  the  Congo,  mis- 
sionaries there  travel  by  train. 

The  commonest  mode  of  entering  one's  field  is  to  walk,  or 
else  be  carried  in  a  hammock  suspended  to  a  pole  between  two 
bearers.  What  the  Catholic  Bishop,  Augonarde,  of  the  Upper 
French  Congo,  says  of  that  region  is  approximately  true  of 
other  sections.  The  traveler  finds  "  no  roads,  only  narrow 
footpaths  [rarely  more  than  ten  inches  wide],  as  the  illustrious 
Livingstone  said,  paths  worn  by  black  feet  with  a  horror  of 
straight  lines,  and  never  in  a  hurry.  No  bridges  over  the 
rivers ;  no  cabins  for  shelter  in  the  evening,  and  protection 
against  the  torrential  rains  of  the  equator;  no  inns  to  furnish 
the  most  modest  repast;  no  other  means  of  locomotion  than 
legs.  And  beside  all  that,  a  torrid  sun,  poor  food  and  often 
malarial  fever." 

With  no  convenient  currency  that  the  missionary  can  avail 
himself  of  "  in  this  shopless  and  foodless  land," —  since  "  living 


438  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

man  himself  has  become  the  commercial  currency  of  Africa," — 
he  must  needs  be  provided  with  bales  of  cloth,  useful  hard- 
ware and  a  fancy  store  outfit  of  tawdry  trinkets,  especially 
beads,  to  use  in  lieu  of  coin.  All  this,  and  the  tinned  goods 
and  other  articles  required  at  his  prospective  station,  make  a 
numerous  corps  of  carriers  necessary,  and  here  the  missionary's 
trials  culminate.  The  Arab  slave-trader  and  unscrupulous 
travelers  have  often  preceded  him  and  implanted  everywhere 
deep  hatred  of  the  foreigner.  Then,  too,  Africa  "  is  a  nation 
of  the  unemployed,"  most  of  whose  "  life  is  spent  in  the  mere 
safeguarding  of  his  main  asset,  i.  e.,  himself."  Hence,  when 
one's  load  is  heavy,  or  a  hostile  tribe  is  just  ahead,  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  stampede  of  carriers,  and  this,  if  not  checked,  may 
cost  the  traveler  his  life.  To  accomplish  this  requires  much 
decision  and  wisdom ;  and,  possibly,  recourse  is  had,  even  by 
the  most  conscientious,  to  such  an  expedient  as  the  saintly 
Henry  Drummond  made  use  of  after  four  of  his  men  had  run 
away  and  he  had  called  to  his  tent  their  three  remaining  fel- 
low-tribesmen. "  In  a  few  moments,"  he  writes,  "  they  ap- 
peared; but  what  to  say  to  them?  Their  dialect  was  quite 
strange  to  me,  and  yet  I  felt  I  must  impress  them  somehow. 
Like  the  judge  putting  on  the  black  cap,  I  drew  my  revolver 
from  under  my  pillow,  and,  laying  it  before  me,  proceeded  to 
address  them.  Beginning  with  a  few  general  remarks  on  the 
weather,  I  first  briefly  sketched  the  geology  of  Africa,  and 
then  broke  into  an  impassioned  defence  of  the  British  Consti- 
tution. The  three  miserable  sinners  —  they  had  done  nothing 
in  the  world  —  quaked  like  aspens.  I  then  followed  up  my  ad- 
vantage by  intoning  in  a  voice  full  of  awful  solemnity  the 
enunciation  of  the  forty-seventh  proposition  of  Euclid,  and 
then  threw  my  all  into  a  blood-curdling  Quod  erat  demonstran- 
dum. Scene  two  followed  when  I  was  alone ;  I  turned  on  my 
pillow  and  wept  for  shame.  It  was  a  prodigious  piece  of  ras- 
cality ;  but  I  cannot  imagine  anything  else  that  would  have 
done,  and  it  succeeded  perfectly.  These  men  were  to  the  end 
the  most  faithful  I  had.    They  felt  henceforth  they  owed  me 


AFRICA 


439 


their  lives ;  for,  according  to  African  custom,  the  sins  of  their 
fellow-tribesmen  should  have  been  visited  upon  them  with  the 
penalty  of  death." 

II.  Climate  and  Its  Missionary  Bearings.  —  i.  Tem- 
perature. —  As  the  equator  almost  exactly  divides  Africa  into 
halves,  there  results  "a  succession  of  climatic  zones  stretching 
across  the  continent,  those  of  the  North  being  reproduced  in 
reversed  order  in  the  South.  Both  the  northern  and  southern 
extremities  are  fairly  temperate  regions,  that  to  the  North  being 
defined  by  the  Atlas  range,  the  lands  north  of  which,  cli- 
matically as  in  other  respects,  rather  resemble  Southern  Europe 
than  the  rest  of  Africa.  Near  the  equator,  and  especially  in 
the  coastlands  and  western  basin,  the  climate  is  generally 
equable,  while  elsewhere,  especially  in  the  elevated  regions  to 
the  East,  there  is  a  much  greater  difference  between  summer 
and  winter,  and  between  day  and  night.  Owing  to  the  altitude 
of  much  of  the  land  within  the  equatorial  zone,  the  climate  is 
actually  cool."  In  the  regions  of  the  most  torrid  heat,  as  in 
the  Sahara  and  under  the  equator,  the  nights  are  usually  cool, 
or  even  chilly  and  frosty. 

2.  Rainfall.  —  Consisting  mainly  of  plateaux  bordered  by 
mountains  which  prevent  the  moisture-bearing  winds  from 
passing  into  the  interior,  the  rainfall  is  very  scanty.  The  only 
regions  where  it  is  abundant  are  narrow  strips  on  the  south 
and  southeast  coasts  and  the  western  part  of  the  equatorial 
area.  "  At  a  distance  from  the  equator  all  the  rain  falls  at  one 
part  of  the  year,  the  wet  season  commencing  soon  after  the 
sun  becomes  vertical  and  lasting  for  two  or  three  months,  while 
the  rest  of  the  year  is  dry.  But  as  we  approach  the  equator, 
since  the  sun  is  vertical  twice  in  the  year,  there  are  two  rainy 
seasons,  separated  by  an  interval  of  dry  weather;  while  near 
the  equator  itself  the  rain  falls  more  or  less  throughout  the 
year." 

3.  Health.  —  Africa's  scourge  is  fever,  usually  due  to  ma- 
laria. It  prevails  on  the  low-lying  and  usually  marshy  coast 
between  the  first  terrace  and  the  ocean;  though  the  Red  Sea 


440  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

coasts  and  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  are  practi- 
cally free  from  malaria.  It  also  prevails  in  inland  districts, 
which  are  either  periodically  or  constantly  under  water,  as 
those  bordering  on  the  Niger,  Congo  and  Upper  Nile.  Else- 
where, with  due  precautions,  the  missionary  finds  the  con- 
tinent fairly  salubrious.  Sections  of  North  Africa  are  health 
resorts,  and  the  Sahara  is  distinctly  healthful.  Much  of  the 
sacrifice  of  precious  life  in  this  continent  would  have  been 
avoided,  if  candidates  had  studied  Dr.  Cross's  "  Health  in 
Africa,"  and  Dr.  Felkin's  "  Disease  in  Africa,"  or  if  they  had 
even  heeded  the  simple  hygienic  rules  laid  down  by  Stanley 
and  other  lay  travelers. 

III.  African  Ethnology.  —  Broadly  speaking,  the  mul- 
titudinous tribes  and  nations  of  Africa  may  be  classed  under 
four  main  heads  —  two  of  them  northern  and  of  the  white 
type,  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic  races,  and  two  Southern,  of  the 
black  type,  the  Bantu  and  Negro  races.  On  the  border-lines 
between  these  racial  regions  there  is,  of  course,  a  large  admix- 
ture of  races,  especially  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Sudan ; 
and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  continent  the  Hamites  and 
Semites  have  no  exclusive  regions.  The  Hottentots  and  dwarf 
races  are  also  classed  by  themselves  by  some  writers. 

I.  The  only  one  of  these  races  not  indigenous  to  the  con- 
tinent is  the  Semitic  stock,  numbering  some  30,000,000  per- 
haps. These  peoples  entered  Africa  from  adjacent  Asia,  some 
of  them  coming  in  remote  ages  from  Southern  Arabia,  and  now 
known  as  the  Himyarites  (Amharites),  of  Abyssinia  and  Har- 
rar  —  possibly  3,000,000  in  number.  The  vast  majority  of 
them,  however,  came  as  the  result  of  the  spread  of  Islam. 
These  Arabs  are  mainly  found  in  Morocco,  Algeria,  West 
Sahara,  Central  and  Eastern  Sudan ;  though  they  are  found  in 
small  numbers  farther  south,  Zanzibar  being  formerly  an  im- 
portant Arab  center.  The  Jews  form  an  interesting  though 
small  section  of  this  race,  and  are  found  mainly  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries. 

As  to  leading  characteristics,  they  are  such  as  one  would 


AFRICA  441 

expect  from  an  essentially  nomadic  race  of  stock  raisers, 
marauders  and  slave-hunters.  When  settled,  and  known  as 
Moors,  they  acquire  "  a  certain  varnish  of  civilization ;  but  the 
great  mass  of  the  population  are  now  as  they  were  in  the  days 
of  Ishmael,  and  such  they  are  likely  to  continue  for  genera- 
tions." They  are  especially  predatory  in  the  Algerian  Sa- 
hara, where  one  of  the  tribes  is  called  "  Breath  of  the  Wind," 
i.  e.,  their  victims  "  may  as  well  seek  the  wind  as  hope  to  re- 
cover their  stolen  property."  In  the  southern  half  of  the  con- 
tinent they  are  the  slave-catchers,  and,  to  some  extent,  traders 
also.  Everywhere  they  are  lovers  of  freedom,  and  are  more 
or  less  fanatical.  The  Arabic  is  a  conquering  tongue,  and 
Arabs  usually  gain  the  ascendency,  not  merely  over  lower 
races  like  the  negroes,  but  over  the  Hamites  as  well.  This 
race  must  be  reckoned  with  by  foreigners. 

2.  The  Hamites  of  mixed  or  doubtful  origin  are  the  Fans 
of  the  Ogowe  basin  and  eastward,  the  Fulahs  of  West  and 
Central  Sudan,  the  Tibbus  of  East  Sahara,  the  Agaos  of 
Abyssinia,  the  Masai  between  Victoria  Nyanza  and  the 
ocean,  and  the  Fellahin  of  Egypt.  True  Hamites  are  the 
Shluhs  of  Morocco,  the  Mzabs  and  Kabyles  of  Algeria  and 
Tunis  —  the  three  preceding  are  known  by  the  common  name 
of  Berbers  —  the  Tuaregs  of  Western  Sahara,  and  the  Gallas, 
Somalis,  Afars  and  Bejas  of  the  northeast  coast.  The  ances- 
tors of  the  Hamites,  though  probably  Caucasian,  were  appar- 
ently aboriginal  to  Africa.  Like  the  Arabs,  they  are  mainly 
stock-raisers,  though  Algerian  Berbers  prefer  agriculture  to 
pasturage.  "  Their  physical  type  is  essentially  Mediterranean, 
often  characterized  by  extremely  regular  features  and  in  places 
even  by  blue  eyes  and  fair  complexion.  But  their  language  has 
no  distinct  relation  to  any  other  Caucasic  form  of  speech.  It 
has  a  geographical  range  in  the  North  analogous  to  that  of 
the  Bantu  in  the  South.  But  it  is  now  extinct  in  Egypt,  where 
Arabic  is  current,  and  where  the  old  Hamitic  speech  is  rep- 
resented only  by  the  liturgical  language  of  the  few  surviving 
Coptic  communities." 


442  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

3.  Next  in  order  as  one  proceeds  southward  are  the  typical 
negroes,  mainly  resident  in  the  black  zone,  extending  from 
Sierra  Leone  eastward  to  the  Abyssinian  highlands,  and  south- 
ward of  this  line  to  a  distance. of  about  700  miles.  Most  of 
this  territory  is  known  as  Beled-es-Sudan,  "  Country  of  the 
Black."  Aside  from  their  darker  color,  the  features  differen- 
tiating them  from  their  negro  neighbors  in  the  South  are  their 
physical  unity  combined  with  languages  of  endless  diversity, 
as  compared  with  the  physical  diversity  and  linguistic  unity  of 
the  Bantus,  and  their  habitat,  which  is  low,  as  contrasted  with 
the  lofty  Bantu  plateau.  The  Sudan  negroes  are  agriculturists 
as  a  rule,  but  also  keep  cattle,  manufacture  palm-oil,  act  as 
laborers  along  the  Guinea  coast  or  on  shipboard  —  the  "  kru 
boys,"  —  or  transact  the  business  of  the  country.  The  Haussas 
are  especially  keen  as  traders,  and  this  fact  has  made  their 
language  the  common  medium  of  commercial  communication 
in  Central  Sudan.  Tribes  along  the  coast  are  the  slaves  of  de- 
basing and  cruel  superstition,  whereas  those  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  black  zone  have  imbibed  some  of  the  civilizing  in- 
fluences of  .their  Hamitic  and  Semitic  neighbors. 

4.  The  Bantu  negroes  occupy  most  of  the  southern  half  of 
Africa.  They  are  lighter  in  color  than  those  of  the  Sudan. 
Indeed,  their  full-toned  brown  skin  caused  a  distinguished 
traveler  to  think  "  how  effective  a  row  of  books  would  be, 
bound  in  native  Morocco."  Many  of  the  tribes  are  of  mixed 
blood.  Their  languages,  though  entirely  different  from  those 
of  the  Hottentots  and  negroes  proper,  are  as  intimately  related 
as  the  Indo-Germanic  tongues,  so  that  the  problem  of  evangel- 
ization is  much  simpler  here  than  elsewhere  in  Africa.  Canni- 
balism, slavery  and  polygamy  make  this  great  heart  of  Africa 
an  abode  of  sorrow  and  a  fit  object  of  Christian  compassion. 

When  one  recalls  how  large  a  portion  of  Africa's  population 
are  Bantus,  Drummond's  pen-portrait  of  them  is  pathetic  in 
the  extreme.  "  Hidden  away  in  these  endless  forests,  like  birds' 
nests  in  a  wood,  in  terror  of  one  another  and  of  their  common 
foe,  the  slaver,  are  small  native  villages;  and  here  in  his  vir- 


AFRICA  443 

gin  simplicity  dwells  man,  without  clothes,  without  civilization, 
without  learning-,  without  religion  —  the  genuine  child  of  na- 
ture, thoughtless,  careless  and  contented.  This  man  is  appar- 
ently quite  happy;  he  has  practically  no  wants.  One  stick, 
pointed,  makes  him  a  spear;  two  sticks  rubbed  together  make 
him  a  fire ;  fifty  sticks  tied  together  make  him  a  house.  The 
bark  he  peels  from  them  makes  his  clothes ;  the  fruits  which 
hang  on  them  form  his  food.  It  is  perfectly  astonishing  when 
one  thinks  of  it  what  nature  can  do  for  the  animal-man,  to  see 
with  what  small  capital  after  all  a  human  being  can  get  through 
the  world.  I  once  saw  an  African  buried.  According  to  the  cus- 
tom of  his  tribe,  his  entire  earthly  possessions  —  and  he  was  an 
average  commoner  —  were  buried  with  him.  Into  the  grave, 
after  the  body,  was  lowered  the  dead  man's  pipe,  then  a  rough 
knife,  then  a  mud  bowl,  and  last  his  bow  and  arrows  —  the 
bow-string  cut  through  the  middle,  a  touching  symbol  that  its 
work  was  done.  This  was  all.  Four  items,  as  an  auctioneer 
would  say,  were  the  whole  belongings  for  half  a  century  of 
this  human  being.  No  man  knows  what  a  man  is  till  he  has 
seen  what  a  man  can  do  without  and  be  withal  a  man.  That  is 
to  say,  no  man  knows  how  great  a  man  is  till  he  sees  how  small 
he  has  been  once." 

And  here  is  his  account  of  the  Bantu's  daily  life.  "  A  fine- 
looking  people,  quiet  and  domestic,  their  life-history  from  the 
cradle  to  the  grave  is  of  the  utmost  simplicity.  Too  ill-armed 
to  hunt,  they  live  all  but  exclusively  on  a  vegetable  diet.  A 
small  part  of  the  year  they  depend,  like  the  monkeys,  upon 
wild  fruits  and  herbs ;  but  the  staple  food  is  a  small  tasteless 
millet-seed,  which  they  grow  in  gardens,  crush  in  a  mortar, 
and  stir  with  water  into  a  thick  porridge.  Twice  a  day,  nearly 
all  the  year  round,  each  man  stuffs  himself  with  this  coarse 
and  tasteless  dough,  shoveling  it  into  his  mouth  in  handfuls 
and  consuming  at  a  sitting  a  pile  the  size  of  an  ant-heap.  His 
one  occupation  is  to  grow  this  millet,  and  his  gardening  is  a 
curiosity.  Selecting  a  spot  in  the  forest,  he  climbs  a  tree,  and 
with  a  small  home-made  ax  lops  off  the  branches  one  by  one. 


444  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

He  then  wades  through  the  htter  to  the  next  tree  and  hacks  it 
to  pieces  also,  leaving  the  trunk  standing  erect.  Upon  all  the 
trees  within  a  circle  of  thirty  or  forty  yards'  diameter  his  ax 
works  similar  havoc,  till  the  ground  stands  breast-high  in 
leaves  and  branches.  Next  the  whole  is  set  on  fire  and  burnt 
to  ashes.  Then,  when  the  first  rains  moisten  the  hard  ground 
and  wash  the  fertile  chemical  constituents  of  the  ash  into  the 
soil,  he  attacks  it  with  his  hoe,  drops  in  a  few  handfuls  of 
millet,  and  the  year's  work  is  over.  But  a  few  weeks,  off  and 
on,  are  required  for  these  operations,  and  he  may  then  go  to 
sleep  till  the  rains  are  over,  assured  of  a  crop  which  never  fails, 
which  is  never  poor,  and  which  will  last  him  till  the  rain  re- 
turns again.  Between  the  acts  he  does  nothing  but  lounge  and 
sleep ;  his  wife,  or  wives,  are  the  millers  and  bakers ;  they  work 
hard  to  prepare  his  food,  and  are  rewarded  by  having  to  take 
their  own  meals  apart ;  for  no  African  could  ever  demean  him- 
self by  eating  with  a  woman.  I  have  tried  to  think  of  some- 
thing else  that  these  people  habitually  do,  but  their  vacuous 
life  leaves  nothing  more  to  tell." 

It  is  only  fair  to  present  the  brighter  side  of  this  sad  picture ; 
for  if  the  above  quotations  truthfully  describe  the  masses  of  the 
Bantu  race,  there  are  other  tribes  that  live  on  a  higher  plane. 
The  Zulus,  of  Southeastern  Africa,  who  have  come  into  con- 
tact with  Christianity  and  civilization,  are  thus  described 
by  the  veteran  missionary,  Dr.  Tyler :  "  In  mental,  as  well  as 
in  physical  ability,  we  may  regard  them  as  in  no  respect  in- 
ferior to  the  whites.  They  are  as  capable  of  as  high  a  degree 
of  culture  as  any  people  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  They  are 
not  only  emotional,  but  logical,  and  have  retentive  memories 
and  can  split  hairs  equal  to  any  Yankee  lawyer."  The  well- 
known  African  traveler  and  writer,  Poultney  Bigelow,  simi- 
larly testifies :  "  The  Zulus  are  by  nature  ladies  and  gentle- 
men ;  that  is  to  say,  they  are  better  mannered,  speak  more 
gently,  are  more  graceful  in  their  movements  and  are  alto- 
gether better  company  than  any  roomful  of  my  own  people 
that  it  has  ever  been  my  good  fortune  to  meet." 


AFRICA  445 

5.  Hottentots  and  Bushmen,  who  inhabit  the  southwestern 
corner  of  the  continent,  are  often  indiscriminately  classed  under 
the  former  name.  This  is  not  correct,  unless  the  case  is  decided 
by  a  linguistic  peculiarity,  the  common  possession  of  clicking 
sounds,  supposed  by  some  philologists  to  be  a  survival  of  an 
early  inarticulate  form  of  speech,  and  so  marked  that  it  sug- 
gested their  low  German  name,  Hiittentiit,  "  a  quack."  The  old 
traveler.  Dapper,  said  that  they  spoke  "  with  clicks  like  Calicut 
hens."  They  are  probably  distinct  races.  The  Hottentot  lan- 
guage may  possibly  be  Hamitic,  though  strong  authorities  deny 
the  statement.  Living  principally  in  Cape  Colony,  they  have 
adopted  many  of  the  customs  and  vices  of  Europeans,  and  have 
become  Christians  to  a  considerable  extent.  They  number  over 
100,000  including  half-breeds. 

The  Bushmen,  or  San,  mostly  dwell  in  the  Kalahari  desert, 
but  also  in  other  sections  of  South  Central  Africa.  The  author 
of  "  Zulu-Land  "  states  that  "  they  build  no  houses,  have  no 
tents,  nor  herds  nor  flock.  They  are  very  diminutive  in  stature, 
of  a  dark  yellow  color,  their  hair  like  wool  twisted  together  in 
small  tufts.  In  their  unsettled,  wandering  condition,  it  has 
been  difficult  to  carry  on  mission  work  among  them;  though 
some  have  been  induced  to  join  stations  among  other  tribes, 
and  been  in  this  way  brought  to  a  knowledge  of  the  gospel." 
This  race  is  apparently  dying  out. 

Mention  of  their  diminutiveness  —  about  four  feet  seven 
inches  —  suggests  the  fact  that  Africa  is  a  continent  of  dwarfs. 
Besides  the  Bushmen,  and  often  classed  with  them  as  a  sepa- 
rate division  of  the  population,  are  the  Akkas  —  about  four  feet 
ten  inches  —  of  Central  Africa,  whom  Emin  Pasha  describes 
as  having  bodies  covered  with  thick  hair,  like  felt,  "  a  venom- 
ous, cowardly  and  thievish  race,  and  very  expert  with  their 
arrows  " ;  the  Obongos,  Akoas  and  Babongos  of  the  Gabun 
and  Ogowe  region,  which  have  become  the  care  of  the  Ameri- 
can Northern  Presbyterians ;  the  Wambutti,  said  by  Stanley  to 
be  the  finest  of  the  African  dwarfs,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  they  are  the  "  parasites  of  the  desert,  who  glue  themselves 


44^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

to  the  clearings  of  the  larger  tribes  and  steal  to  their  heart's 
content  " ;  the  Batwas  of  the  Sankuru  River,  the  smallest  of 
all  —  four  feet  three  inches  —  unless  we  except  the  M'Kab- 
bas  of  Lake  Agami,  who  are  reported  to  be  four  feet  one 
inch  in  height.  All  are  forest  dwellers,  shy  and  difficult  to 
reach.  They  have  rude  religious  instincts,  sometimes  rising  to 
pathetic  creature  longings,  as  witness  this  dwarf  prayer  to  the 
Supreme  Zer,  reported  by  Dr.  Krapf :  "  Yea,  if  thou  dost 
really  exist,  why  dost  thou  let  us  be  slain?  We  ask  thee  not 
for  food  or  clothing;  for  we  only  live  on  snakes,  cats,  mice. 
Thou  hast  made  us ;  why  dost  thou  let  us  be  trodden  down  ?  " 
No  wonder  that  Miss  Margaret  MacLean,  of  Glasgow,  has 
been  moved  to  attempt  pygmy  evangelization  through  the 
above-named  board. 

IV.  Religion  and  Morals.  —  i.  Spheres  of  Influence  and 
Proportions.  —  Generally  speaking,  Africa  is  divided  between 
the  votaries  of  nature  religions  and  the  followers  of  Moham- 
med. The  latter  occupy  the  northern  half  of  the  continent  and 
a  strip  on  the  east  coast  running  southward  from  Abyssinia 
to  a  point  below  Zanzibar.  Heathen  Africa  lies  to  the  south 
of  this  line,  though  Cape  Colony  and  the  Dutch  territory  are 
largely  Christian  with  an  admixture  of  heathen.  In  the  Mo- 
hammedan section  are  included  the  Christians  of  Abyssinia  and 
the  Coptic  communities  of  Egypt. 

According  to  Professor  E.  Schmidt  the  percentage  of  ad- 
herents of  each  great  faith  found  on  the  continent  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Hindus  and  Buddhists,  one  fiftieth  of  one  per  cent. ; 
Jews,  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent. ;  Roman  Catholics,  one 
and  four-tenths  per  cent. ;  Protestants,  one  and  nine-tenths  per 
cent. ;  Coptic  and  Abyssinian  Christians,  two  and  three-tenths 
per  cent. ;  Mohammedans,  thirty-six  per  cent. ;  lower  forms  of 
religion,  fifty-eight  per  cent.  In  round  numbers,  then,  six  in- 
habitants of  Africa  out  of  every  hundred  know  more  or  less 
about  Christianity,  thirty-six  are  Mohammedans,  and  fifty- 
eight  are  nature  worrshipers  such  as  are  described  in  the  first 
chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.    If  Africa's  population 


AFRICA  447 

be  placed  at  160,000,000,  this  means  that  there  are  9,600,000 
nominal  Christians,  57,600,000^  Mohammedans  and  92,800,000 
heathen.  There  would  thus  be  twice  as  many  Mohammedans 
in  Africa  as  the  entire  population  of  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
and  almost  precisely  the  same  number  as  are  reported  by  the 
India  census  of  1891,  while  of  the  world's  heathen  population 
in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word,  forty  out  of  every  hundred 
are  in  Africa.  No  other  continent  has  anything  like  so  large 
a  proportion  of  heathen  inhabitants. 

2.  Christianity  is  not  only  numerically  the  least  important  of 
these  faiths,  but  it  must  also  be  confessed  that  the  large  mi- 
nority of  this  small  number  are  little  better  than  baptized  pa- 
gans. Protestantism  is  quite  vigorous  and  healthy  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  continent,  albeit  scandalized  and  wounded 
by  the  clash  of  Christian  arms ;  and  Catholicism  in  Portuguese 
territory  and  along  the  Mediterranean  is  by  no  means  equal 
to  that  of  its  northern  shore. 

Coptic  Christianity  is  of  the  Monophysite  branch,  holding 
that  the  human  and  divine  in  Jesus  constituted  but  one  com- 
posite nature.  The  Copts  are  the  Christian  descendants  of  the 
aboriginal  Egyptians  probably,  and  in  1897  numbered  608,446. 
Traditions  make  St.  Mark  the  founder  of  their  Church  and 
its  first  Patriarch.  The  Coptic  ritual,  liturgy  and  vestments 
probably  approximate  very  closely  early  Christian  originals. 
This  liturgy,  written  in  Greek  uncials,  is  in  the  now  dead  Cop- 
tic tongue  which  is  said  to  be  a  form  of  the  Hamite  speech  of 
ancient  Egypt.  Explanations  in  Arabic  usually  accompany 
its  reading.  Butler  rightly  says :  "  The  romance  of  language 
could  go  no  further  than  to  join  the  speech  of  Pharaoh  and 
the  writing  of  Homer  in  the  service-book  of  an  Egyptian  Chris- 
tian." 

They  "  hate  other  Christians  even  more  than  they  hate  the 
Moslems,"  though  there  is  an  increasing  friendliness  exhibited 
toward  Protestants.    Their  marked  religiosity  is  often  accom- 

1  Professor  Keane  and  Dr.  Noble,  working  independently,  practically  agree 
upon  a  smaller  number,  40,000,000. 


448  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  '■ 

panied  by  a  character  "  in  general  gloomy,  deceitful  and  ava- 
ricious; they  are  ignorant,  drunken  and  sensual."  Most  of 
the  Copts  live  in  Cairo,  though  large  settlements  are  found 
along  the  Nile  in  upper  Egypt.  Essentially  indoor  workers, 
on  account  of  their  knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  skill  in  the 
finer  handicrafts,  they  are  naturally  of  paler  complexion  than 
their  neighbors. 

Abyssinian  Christians,  since  their  conversion  in  the  fourth 
century,  have  adhered  to  the  mother  church  in  Egypt,  and 
their  abuna,  or  bishop,  is  still  nominated  by  the  Coptic  Pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria.  Their  religion  is  a  debased  Christian- 
ity plus  a  few  Jewish  rites  and  much  superstition.  The  oldest 
known  form  of  the  Himyaritic  language  is  used  in  the  Church, 
but  is  not  understood  by  the  common  people;  hence  there  is 
prevailing  ignorance  outside  of  the  religious  orders  number- 
ing 12,000  monks.  General  ignorance  does  not  prevent  fierce 
religious  controversies,  however;  though  it  does  account  for 
prevalent  immorality  and  excessive  intemperance. 

3.  Mohammedanism's  thirty-six  per  cent,  includes  a  large 
number  of  Africans  who  ought  to  be  classed  with  heathen ; 
since  they  have  only  the  slightest  connection,  often  merely  a 
territorial  one,  with  Islam.  By  early  conquest  and  later  ad- 
vances along  more  peaceful  lines  this  faith  has  spread  over 
about  half  of  Africa  —  including  its  large  desert  portion. 
With  the  exception  of  its  reforming  element  it  does  not  differ 
much  from  what  we  have  seen  in  other  countries;  though  as 
it  has  had  largely  to  do  with  very  low  classes  of  society,  it 
has  apparently  had  a  slightly  helpful  influence.  This  is  a 
greatly  mooted  question  with  strong  advocates  like  Canon 
Taylor,  Reclus,  Thomson  and  Blyden,  and  equally  strong  and 
competent  antagonists  —  Livingstone,  Stanley,  Schweinfurth 
and  Burton.  In  many  cases  it  has  developed  a  desire  for 
clothing  and  certain  social  comforts;  occasionally.it  has  dis- 
couraged cannibalism  and  discredited  the  medicine  man;  and 
usually  greater  cleanliness  and  the  ability  of  a  few  to  read 
Arabic    follow  the  Arab.       This  leaves    out  of  account  the 


AFRICA  449 

blighting  influence  of  Islam,  in  its  sensual  teachings  and  in 
the  pursuit  of  the  trade  in  human  flesh,  which  is  Africa's 
greatest  curse.  It  is  a  relief  to  know  that  except  in  Nigeria 
Mohammedanism  of  the  average  stamp  is  not  progressing  in 
Africa,  but  is  rather  being  driven  slowly  northward.  While 
the  Fellata  and  the  Mandingo  are  still  to  be  reckoned  with  as 
Mohammedan  missionaries,  the  Senussi  brotherhood  of  North- 
ern Africa  are  men  of  a  very  different  stamp  —  so  enlightened, 
indeed,  that  they  resemble  the  Jesuit  more  than  they  do  the  de- 
vouring hordes  of  Islam.  The  story  of  the  rise  and  present  ac- 
tivity of  these  reformers  constitutes  one  of  the  most  instructive 
and  interesting  chapters  of  recent  Mohammedan  history. 

4.  Heathen  Africa  still  remains  —  fully  a  hundred  million 
really,  if  not  statistically,  deserving  of  the  name,  —  men, 
women  and  children  shrouded  in  superstition  and  dominated 
by  scheming  sorcerers  and  slavish  fears  of  dreaded  terrors. 
Three  elements  in  African  heathenism  are  plainly  discernible, 
all  of  them  more  or  less  connected  with  an  accompanying  class 
in  the  community  variously  named  but  supposedly  possessed  of 
superhuman  powers. 

The  first  of  these  elements  is  fetishism.  Not  only  did  this 
term  originate  in  Africa,  but  it  is  there  that  fetishism  has  ex- 
hibited its  most  numerous  varieties  and  greatest  power.  A 
fetish  is  any  natural  or  artificial  object,  which,  being  appro- 
priated by  an  individual  and  counted  as  animate  or  conscious, 
is  thereafter  the  protector  or  slave  of  its  possessor.  Although 
this  object  may  sometimes  have  the  form  of  a  rudely  carved 
idol,  it  differs  from  one  in  that  it  is  not  supposed  to  be  the 
temporary  abode  of  a  superhuman  being ;  and  especially  in  the 
fact  that  its  possessor  has  perfect  power  over  his  fetish, 
whereas  an  idol  is  regarded  as  having  power  over  its  pos- 
sessor. The  impartation  of  fetishistic  power  to  a  material  ob- 
ject and  the  fabrication  of  complicated  fetishes  is  usually  in 
the  hands  of  a  fetish  doctor  or  sorcerer.  A  rude  savage  phi- 
losophy which  argues  cause  and  effect  simply  on  the  post  hoc 
ergo  propter  hoc  principle  makes  a  powerful  fetish  of  to-day 


450  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  kindling  wood  of  to-morrow ;  hence  such  a  rehgion  has 
no  constant  value,  much  less  any  moral  significance. 

A  far  higher  form  of  religion  with  an  accompanying  law 
derivable  from  the  known  desires  and  commands  during  life, 
is  found  in  ancestral  worship,  so  common  through  southern 
Africa  especially.  It  is  by  no  means  the  elaborated  system 
found  in  China;  but  it  has  a  more  realistic  form,  especially  in 
Zulu-land,  where  certain  snakes,  often  seen  about  or  in  the 
krall,  are  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  a  departed  ancestor. 
It  is  the  supposed  service  of  the  dead  by  survivors  that  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  awful  hecatombs  of  slaves  and  wives  reported 
from  West  Africa;  though  it  should  also  be  said  that  were  it 
not  for  so  dread  a  fate,  the  life  of  an  African  potentate  would 
be  in  daily  jeopardy  from  jealous  or  injured  dependents. 

The  highest  point  reached  by  African  heathenism  is  found 
in  its  vague  belief  in  a  God,  derived,  in  the  case  of  the  Zulus 
at  least,  from  a  projection  of  ancestral  worship  into  the  indefi- 
nite past.  From  ancestor  to  ancestor  one  finally  reaches  back 
to  Unkulunkulu,  "  the  Old-old  One."  The  belief  in  God  exists 
"  throughout  Negro  Africa  in  less  or  larger  degree,  sometimes 
clearer  or  fuller,  sometimes  more  dim  or  puny ;  but  as  a  whole 
substantially  that  of  the  Galwa  among  the  Bantu  and  the 
Yoruba  of  Sudan.  The  Galwa  have  a  distinct  idea  of  an  in- 
visible being  to  whom  they  refer  creation  and  providence,  who 
is  also  the  author  of  life  and  death,  and  who  was  formerly 
thought  to  regard  character  and  punish  evil  conduct.  The 
Yoruba  make  him  the  causal,  though  not  always  the  actual 
creator;  have  some  idea  of  his  holiness  and  justice,  talk  much 
of  his  goodness,  knowledge,  power  and  providence;  and  re- 
fuse to  compare  him  to  their  greatest  idol." 

Running  through  the  entire  scale  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  belief,  are  all  sorts  of  superstitions  and  equally  base- 
less and  harmful  practices.  But  behind  them  all  is  usually 
some  grade  of  a  fetish  priest  or  sorcerer.  Magic  potions  and 
charms,  the  bringing  of  rain,  the  "  smelling  out  "  of  those  who 
have  bewitched  any  person  or  thing,  the  stilling  of  a  myriad  of 


AFRICA  451 

harmful  spirits,  etc.,  are  the  employments  of  these  pes- 
tilential promoters  of  witchcraft  and  a  false  religion.  Well 
does  Dr.  Noble  write :  "  Witchcraft  is  an  unutterable  evil  of 
negro  society,  and  the  belief  has  done  only  less  than  the  slave- 
trade  and  wholesale  sacrifice  toward  depopulating  Africa." 

V.  Political  and  Prophetic  Africa.  —  What  is  to  be  the 
future  of  this  pagan  continent,  blessed  in  great  part  by  abun- 
dant natural  resources  and  with  sufficient  salubriousness,  ac- 
cording to  Schweinfurth,  to  make  its  European  colonization  a 
very  possible  contingency? 

1.  In  point  of  natural  resources  it  is  a  competitor  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  twentieth  century,  second  only  to  South 
America  among  the  sparsely  occupied  domains  of  the  earth. 
Its  diamonds  and  gold,  its  timber  and  the  varied  products  of 
forest  and  soil  are  immediate  objects  of  desire,  now  that  the 
wealth  and  bane  of  Africa,  ivory,  is  diminishing  in  quantity. 
If  Africa  unemployed  can  produce  so  much  for  the  world's 
markets,  what  will  not  be  possible  when  training,  and  magnifi- 
cent object  lessons,  such  as  the  missionaries  of  Lovedale  and 
Blythewood,  and  commercial  enterprises,  like  the  African- 
Lakes'  Company,  are  furnishing,  become  widely  operative? 

2.  But  this  raises  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  any  ex- 
tensive development  of  the  African  as  a  factor  in  the  world's 
progress.  At  present  he  has  been  stigmatized  as  lazy  and 
wholly  irresponsible.  His  laziness  is  the  legitimate  result  of 
having  nothing  worth  while  to  do.  His  simple  wants  are 
easily  supplied  and  as  work  under  indigenous  conditions  can 
secure  him  nothing  more  than  is  now  in  his  possession,  he 
yields  before  his  tropical  environment.  This  is  not  the  case 
where  sufficient  incentive  for  labor  exists;  as  witness  the  na- 
tives along  the  coast,  on  the  great  transport  routes  or  rail- 
wavs  in  construction,  and  in  the  far  interior  where  "a  work  like 
the  Stevenson  Road,  e.g.,  suddenly  develops  surprising  trust- 
worthiness  and  willingness  to  labor.  The  critics  of  vStanley's 
enthusiastic  vision  of  thousands  of  miles  of  cloth  being  dis- 
posed of  to  Africans  are    silenced  when    acquaintance    with 


452  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

civilization  and  industry  furnish  what  Europe  and  America 
desire  in  exchange  therefor.  Drummond  sums  up  a  compre- 
hensive discussion  of  the  subject  as  follows:  "Africa  at  this 
moment  has  an  impossible  access,  a  perilous  climate,  a  penni- 
less people,  an  undeveloped  soil.  So  once  had  England;  but 
there  is  nothing  in  the  soil,  the  products,  the  climate  or  the 
people  of  Africa  to  forbid  its  joining,  even  at  this  late  day,  in 
the  great  march  of  civilization.  In  capacity  the  African  is  fit 
to  work,  in  inclination  he  is  willing  to  work,  and  in  actual  ex- 
periment he  has  done  it ;  so  that  with  capital  enlisted  and  wise 
heads  to  direct  these  energies,  with  considerate  employers  who 
will  remember  that  these  men  are  but  children,  this  vast  na- 
tion of  the  unemployed  may  yet  be  added  to  the  slowly  grow- 
ing list  of  the  world's  producers." 

3.  Politics  are  inextricably  mingled  in  Africa's  problematic 
future.  A  glance  at  the  map  shows  what  good  foundation 
there  is  for  the  trite  witticism  that  having  begun  by  stealing 
Africans  from  Africa,  the  nations  are  now  stealing  Africa 
from  the  Africans.  While  there  is  unclaimed  and  neutral  ter- 
ritory —  Eastern  Sahara,  etc.  —  amounting  to  650,000  square 
miles,  the  only  native  states  outside  of  European  influence  are 
Abyssinia,  Morocco  and  Liberia,  or  552,000  square  miles  of 
independent  native  territory  out  of  eleven  and  a  half  million; 
that  is.  Christian  Europe  has  graciously  permitted  Africa  to  re- 
tain for  a  season  five  per  cent,  of  her  original  belongings !  Yet 
as  the  criminal  sale  of  Joseph  to  an  African  potentate  was  over- 
ruled for  the  salvation  of  two  great  nations,  so  purloined 
Africa  is  being  benefited  on  the  whole  by  the  change.  And, 
fortunately  for  her,  twenty-eight  per  cent.,  or  thirty-eight  per 
cent.,  if  Egypt  is  included,  of  her  entire  territory  —  and  this, 
too,  the  most  productive  and  most  capable  of  development  — 
is  dominated  by  Protestant  powers.  It  is  too  early  yet  to  pre- 
dict the  outcome  of  the  Dutch  and  British  contest  in  South 
Africa;  though  whatever  be  the  loss  to  Christian  ideals  be- 
cause of  this  fraternal  conflict,  that  most  favored  section  of 
the  continent  will  extend  northward  in  ever  increasing  volume 


AFRICA  453 

its  civilizing  and  Christianizing  influences.  As  the  negro  does 
not  die  out  before  civilization,  except  where  its  damning 
factors  enter  alone,  —  such  as  the  devil's  trade  in  death-dealing 
liquor,  —  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  with  increasing  acces- 
sibility and  protection  from  intertribal  wars,  the  continent  will 
gain  rather  than  lose  from  its  foreign  political  entanglements. 


PART  II.  — MISSIONARY 

In  1898  W.  T.  Stead  wrote :  "  British  Africa  is  the  product 
of  three  forces  —  British  conquest,  British  trade  and  British 
missions.  And  of  the  three  the  first  counts  for  the  least  and 
the  last  for  the  greatest  factor  in  the  expansion  of  Britain  in 
Africa.  British  missionaries  have  been  everywhere  the  pio- 
neers of  empire.  The  British  frontier  has  advanced  on  the 
stepping-stones  of  missionary  graves.  Deduct  the  missionaries 
from  the  sum  total  of  the  forces  which  have  colored  the  Afri- 
can map  red  from  Table  Mountain  to  the  Zambezi,  and  the 
Empire  disappears.  It  was  David  Moffat,  the  missionary, 
who  led  the  way  into  Central  Africa  from  the  South.  It  was 
his  dauntless  son-in-law,  the  missionary  Livingstone,  who 
pierced  the  heart  of  the  Dark  Continent  in  which  he  laid  down 
his  life;  it  was  Moffat's  successor,  the  missionary  Alackenzie, 
who  secured  the  open  road  from  the  Cape  to  the  Zambezi  along 
which  Cecil  Rhodes  subsequently  marched  to  empire."  Simi- 
lar testimony  could  be  borne  concerning  the  civilizing  and  edu- 
cative value  of  the  labors  of  missionaries  from  other  lands. 
Their  greatest  glory,  however,  is  found  in  the  inner  transfor- 
mations wrought  by  the  gospel  which  they  have  always  made 
their  first  concern.  Little  as  has  been  thus  far  accomplished, 
its  story  is  a  stimulus  to  great  expectations  for  the  future. 

I.  The  Societies  and  Their  Fields.  —  i.  F.  Perry  Noble, 
Ph.D.,  in  "  The  Redemption  of  Africa,"  1898,  —  by  far  the 
best  work  on  the  missionary  occupation  of  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent,—  gives  the  number  of  Protestant  societies  of  strictly 


454  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

missionary  character  operating  in  Africa  and  its  islands  as  140. 
This  includes  only  independent  societies ;  yet  among  them  are 
some  which  have  no  agents  from  America  or  Europe  laboring 
in  Africa  and  not  a  few  are  literary.  The  veteran  German 
authority,  R.  Grundemann,  Ph.D.,  in  his  "  Kleine  Missions- 
Geographic  und  -Statistik,"  1901,  prints  a  select  list  of  forty- 
five  main  societies,  though  he  omits  all  missions  in  the  Medi- 
terranean countries  with  the  exception  of  a  station  in  Upper 
Egypt.  In  Volume  II  of  the  present  work  will  be  found  sta- 
tistics of  ninety-five  societies  which  have  foreign  representa- 
tives in  Africa,  or  else  —  in  a  very  few  cases  —  native  clergy- 
men and  pastors  of  equal  rank  with  the  foreign  missionary. 
Of  these  ninety-five  societies,  twenty-four  are  American, 
thirty-six  are  British,  twenty-six  are  Continental  and  nine 
are  international  or  else  indigenous.  Detailed  information  as 
to  their  operations  will  be  found  in  Volume  II. 

2.  The  field  occupied  hy  these  organizations  cannot  all  be 
specified  here,  though  the  following  statement  will  enable  the 
reader  to  see  what  societies  are  doing  the  most  work  in  the 
various  grand  divisions  of  the  continent.  As  will  be  noted, 
many  of  them  are  not  mentioned.  The  first  three  named  un- 
der each  division  are  usually  the  most  important  in  the  force 
employed,  the  stations  occupied,  or  else  in  the  number  of  ad- 
herents. North  Africa:  the  North  Africa  Mission,  the  United 
Presbyterians  of  North  America  and  the  Church  Missionary 
Society.  East  Africa:  the  Church  Missionary^  Society,  Uni- 
versities' Mission,  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society,  the  German 
East  Africa  Society,  the  Evangelical  National  Society  of  Swe- 
den, the  Moravians  and  the  Leipsic  Society.  South  Africa: 
in  Gaza-land,  the  American  Board ;  in  Mashona-land,  the  Wes- 
leyan  Mission,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel; 
in  the  Transvaal,  the  Wesleyan  Mission,  Berlin  Mission,  the 
Hermannsburg  Mission,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel,  the  Mission  Romande  of  Switzerland,  the  South  Af- 
rica General  Mission;  in  Zulu-land  and  Natal,  the  Hermanns- 
burg Society,  the  Norwegian  Missionary  Society,  the  Society 


AFRICA  455 

for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  and  the  American  Board; 
in  Kaffraria,  the  Wesleyan  Mission,  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel,  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  and 
the  London  Mission ;  in  Basuto-land  and  Zambezia,  the  Paris 
Society ;  in  Bechuana-land,  the  London  Missionary  Society ; 
in  Orange  Free  State,  the  Wesleyan  Mission  and  the  South 
Africa  General  Mission ;  in  Cape  Colony,  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society,  the  South  Africa  General  Mission,  the  Wesleyan 
Mission  and  the  Rhenish  Society;  in  German  Southwest  Af- 
rica, the  Rhenish  Society.  IVest  Africa:  in  West  Central  Af- 
rica, including  also  the  Congo  Free  State,  the  American  and 
English  Baptists,  the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance,  the 
Swedish  Missionary  Society,  the  Regions  Beyond  Missionary 
Union  and  the  Plymouth  Brethren ;  in  the  region  around  the 
angle  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  Basle  Society,  the  Northern 
Presbyterians  of  the  United  States,  the  German  Baptists  and 
the  Paris  Society ;  in  Kamerun,  the  Basle  Society ;  in  Old  Cal- 
ibar,  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland ;  in  Nigeria,  the 
Church  Missionary  Society;  in  Yoruba-land,  work  of  inde- 
pendent churches,  the  Wesleyan  Mission,  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  and  the  Southern  Presbyterians  of  America;  in 
Togo-land,  the  North  German  Missionary  Society ;  in  the  Gold 
Coast,  the  Wesleyans  and  the  Basle  Society;  in  Liberia,  the 
Northern  Methodists  of  the  United  States,  the  American 
Episcopalians  and  independent  churches ;  in  Sierra  Leone,  the 
Wesleyans,  independent  churches,  the  United  Brethren  in 
Christ  and  the  African  Methodists  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Some  other  points  of  special  importance  may  be  noted. 
A  glance  at  the  African  maps  in*  Volume  II  will  reveal  the 
fact  that  mission  stations  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the 
coast,  the  basins  of  great  rivers  and  the  central  lakes'  region. 
In  the  case  of  South  Africa,  however,  they  are  widely  distrib- 
uted over  the  country,  and  here  and  on  the  west  coast  the  work 
is  by  far  the  strongest.  It  must  also  be  noted  that  Africa  is  the 
great  field  of  the  German  societies  as  well  as  of  French  and 
Swiss  missionary  work,  while  other  Continental  societies  are 


45^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

likewise  well  represented.  The  vast  expanse  of  the  Sudan  and 
of  the  region  south  of  it  is  almost  untouched  as  yet,  save  for 
the  Congo  belt.  Another  fact  with  regard  to  the  fields  is 
worth  noticing.  In  the  northern,  or  Mohammedan  lobe  of 
Africa,  there  are  thirty-seven  societies  working;  in  the  south- 
ern, or  heathen  lobe,  forty-five  are  laboring;  while  eleven  so- 
cieties have  representatives  in  both  great  sections.  South  Af- 
rica, of  course,  is  largely  occupied  by  whites  and  in  some  dis- 
tricts may  be  considered  a  Protestant  country,  though  there  is 
ample  field  for  missionary  effort  among  the  native  population. 

II.  Types  of  Africans  Labored  Among.  —  i.  First  among 
those  for  whom  missionaries  are  working  must  be  mentioned 
the  Christians  of  Africa,  remnants  of  the  early  Church.  The 
work  among  the  Copts  is  made  easy  by  their  docility  of  char- 
acter, by  the  readiness  to  send  their  children  to  school  and  a 
desire  on  their  own  part  to  listen  to  the  gospel,  by  the  friend- 
liness of  officials  and  members  of  all  classes,  and  by  the  preva- 
lent desire  to  acquire  Western  manners  and  customs.  Con- 
servatism is  an  offset  to  these  aids  in  the  work,  as  are  their 
prejudices  and  bigotry,  their  covetousness,  licentiousness  and 
intemperance.  Persecution,  too,  has  been  the  lot  of  many  of 
those  who  have  left  the  Coptic  communion. 

The  Abyssinian  Christians  are  not  greatly  different  from  the 
Egyptian  Copts.  The  Swedish  National  Society's  missionaries 
are  mainly  restricted  to  work  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Red 
Sea,  where  they  have  the  protection  of  the  Italians.  The  ex- 
clusive policy  of  the  Abyssinian  King  of  Kings  is  a  great  ob- 
stacle to  Christian  labor  in  this  African  Switzerland.  The  fur- 
ther fact  that  even  the  largest  towns  are  —  with  one  exception 
—  but  little  larger  than  ordinary  villages  of  the  Occident,  and 
that  the  inhabitants  are  pastoral  and  hence  nomadic,  will  make 
the  future  of  mission  work  far  from  easy.  Even  the  capital 
is  periodically  changed  in  order  to  secure  a  better  supply  of 
firewood.  The  healthiness  of  the  country  and  its  position  will 
make  its  future  occupation  desirable,  so  soon  as  it  is  possible 
to  labor  freely  in  the  interior. 


AFRICA  457 

2.  Next  to  the  Christians  just  named  stand  the  Mohamme- 
dans, the  Jews  not  being  considered  in  this  place.  Throughout 
all  North  Africa  are  multitudes  of  Moslems  who  are  interested 
and  active  in  propagating  the  tenets  of  Islam.  The  traditional 
educational  center  of  Mohammedans  is  Al  Azhar  of  Cairo. 
The  importance  of  this  institution  is  greatly  overestimated ;  for 
while  it  has  thousands  of  students,  —  so  called,  —  a  great 
majority  of  them  are  without  any  moral  earnestness  and  have 
no  expectation  of  becoming  Moslem  missionaries.  Far  more  to 
be  feared  is  the  Senussi  brotherhood,  about  which  something 
has  already  been  said.  "  This  order  is,  in  fact,  a  great  home 
and  foreign  missionary  society,  a  band  of  men  dedicated  for 
life  to  the  one  object  of  making  the  starting  point  of  Islam  its 
goal,  of  repressing  in  every  possible  way  any  attempt  at  social 
or  religious  reform,  and  of  extending  by  peaceable  methods, 
when  other  methods  cannot  be  pursued,  the  religion  of  the 
great  Arabian  prophet."  Its  members  are  opposed  to  all  Occi- 
dental ideas,  in  furtherance  of  the  purpose  of  the  founder  "  to 
erect  an  impassable  barrier  to  the  progress  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion and  the  influence  of  Christian  powers  in  Moslem  lands." 
Though  the  head  monastery  of  the  Order  was  established  as  re- 
cently as  1855,  there  are  subordinate  to  this  mother  house  no 
less  than  120  others.  In  this  head  monastery  at  Jaghbub 
"  there  are  700  pupils,  trained  not  only  to  reform  what  is  lax 
in  Islam,  but  to  be  a  powerful  proselyting  agency.  Year  by 
year  they  pour  forth  to  all  parts  of  North  Africa  to  proclaim 
the  doctrine  of  Islam."  Other  monasteries  are  found  in  Egypt, 
the  Sudan,  Tunis,  Algiers,  Tripoli  and  Senegambia.  In  its 
propagandism  it  seeks  to  win  men  of  large  influence  and  em- 
phasizes education  of  the  young. 

The  Protestant  attempt  to  reach  Moslems  in  North  Africa, 
which  is  made  more  difficult  by  the  zeal  of  these  propagandists, 
is  rendered  somewhat  less  hopeless,  however,  by  greater  se- 
curity of  life  in  case  of  conversion.  The  same  desire  for  edu- 
cation that  operates  as  a  lever  in  elevating  the  Copts,  is  also 
helpful  among  Mohammedans,    Thus  in  the  last  report  of  the 


45^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

United  Presbyterians,  there  were  in  their  schools  3,077  Moslem 
pupils  to  7,290  Copts  and  2,838  Protestants.  In  addition  to  this 
most  fruitful  line  of  approach,  personal  work  and  religious 
and  biblical  literature  are  scarcely  less  useful. 

3.  The  evangelization  of  the  more  than  90,000,000  of  heathen 
Africa  is  the  mighty  task  that  confronts  the  Christian  Church. 
Ignorance,  almost  entire  lack  of  the  elements  of  culture,  ger- 
minal ideas  of  religion  when  even  these  are  prevalent,  make  it 
necessary  for  the  missionary  to  remember  the  advice  of  Africa's 
veteran  German  pioneer,  Krapf :  "  Resist  with  all  the  power 
of  faith,  of  prayer  and  of  truth,  that  mood  of  despondency  and 
faint-heartedness  which  is  disposed  to  say  with  the  men  sent  to 
spy  out  the  land  of  Canaan,  '  We  be  not  able  to  go  up  against 
the  people ;  for  they  are  stronger  than  we.'  Let  your  first 
care  be  to  convert  the  heathen  within  your  own  heart,  your 
self-confidence,  your  self-love.  Be  modest,  but  not  faint- 
hearted." 

To  overcome  the  inertia  of  ages,  engendered  in  much  of  the 
continent  by  favoring  soil  and  climate,  and  to  displace  the 
thirst  for  blood  and  for  gold  with  a  desire  for  peace  and  in- 
dustry, requires  rare  patience  and  ability  of  a  high  order.  How 
much  greater  is  the  demand  made  upon  the  spiritual  nature, 
when  one  must  create  ideas  of  holiness  and  virtue  by  a  stain- 
less life  before  there  can  be  any  desire  for  better  living.  While 
ability  of  every  sort  is  desirable,  this  is  preeminently  the  field 
for  the  versatile  missionary  with  special  gifts  in  practical  di- 
rections. The  well-known  missionary  and  diplomat,  Rev.  John 
Mackenzie,  said  on  this  point :  "  The  Hfe  of  a  missionary  in 
the  interior  of  South  Africa  is  usually  attended  with  stirring 
incident  and  adventure.  Whilst  pursuing  his  great  work  of 
evangelist,  he  meets  with  game  and  wild  beasts  in  the  open 
country ;  with  wild  and  degraded  men  in  town  and  village.  He 
uses  wagons,  guns,  horses  and  oxen ;  he  handles  trowel,  plumb- 
line,  adze,  saw  and  spirit-level,  as  well  as  the  usual  implements 
of  a  minister's  study.  His  highest  work  is  to  deliver  the  mes- 
sage of  Heaven's  mercy,  and  to  explain  the  Sacred  Book  in 


AFRICA  459 

which  it  is  contained ;  but  he  seeks  also  to  teach  something  of 
natural  science.  At  times  he  is  a  schoolmaster ;  and  again  he 
may  be  seen,  with  his  disciples,  in  the  garden  or  cornfield  with 
spade  or  plow  in  his  hands." 

4.  One  other  type  which  gives  the  worker  no  small  degree 
of  unrest  and  solicitude  is  the  native  of  those  sections  where 
Western  civilisation  is  sweeping  in  with  its  vanguard  of  seduc- 
tive evils,  and  where  the  might  of  the  pseudo-Christian  is  ar- 
rayed against  the  right  of  the  helpless  African.  While  mis- 
sionaries are  not  especially  hampered  by  the  awful  deeds  of  the 
trafficker  in  human  flesh  in  most  parts  of  Africa,  he  is  the 
representative  of  Christian  lands  that  send  destructive  firewater 
to  myriads  of  doomed  victims.  He  is,  perhaps,  a  citizen  of  one 
of  those  two  Christian  nations  that  for  years  have  been  seek- 
ing each  other's  life  with  little  thought  of  the  example  set  be- 
fore the  wondering  and  frightened  native,  and  of  the  havoc 
wrought  on  his  property  or  family.  And  what  must  be  the 
effect  upon  Africans  of  seeing  foreign  officials  of  a  supposedly 
model  country,  the  Congo  State,  in  order  to  secure  the  desired 
amount  of  rubber  as  a  tax  in  kind,  send  out  native  soldiers  to 
kill  those  who  fail  to  comply  with  the  demand?  In  order  not 
to  waste  ammunition  the  Commissaire  requires  them  to  bring 
back  a  right  hand  for  every  cartridge  used,  so  that  at  one  of 
the  mission  stations  eighty  hands  were  brought  in  one  day  and 
seventy  the  next.  Happily  this  particular  grievance  has  almost 
disappeared,  thanks  to  the  bravery  of  Mr.  Shelbron  of  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union. 

The  type  which  causes  the  most  difficulty,  however,  is  found 
in  South  Africa  below  the  Zambesi.  The  problem  confronting 
the  missionary  here  is  that  of  "  welding  the  black  and  the  white 
together  so  as  to  form  one  strong,  self-reliant  and  helpful 
brotherhood,"  when  the  blacks  outnumber  the  whites  by  about 
seven  to  one,  and  the  brain  is  in  the  white  man's  possession, 
while  the  black  man  possesses  the  brawn.  .What  the  relations 
too  often  are  between  these  two  races  was  thus  described  by  a 
London  Missionary  Society  representative  at  the  Ecumenical 


460  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Conference  of  1900 :  "  In  one  section  of  the  Christian  Church 
in  the  Transvaal  only  a  short  time  ago  a  resolution  was  passed 
threatening  excommunication  to  any  of  its  officers  or  mem- 
bers who  should  do  anything  to  evangelize  the  heathen.  In 
the  Constitution  of  the  Transvaal  Government  it  says  that 
there  shall  be  no  equality,  either  in  Church  or  State,  between 
white  and  colored  people  in  the  Transvaal.  No  colored  per- 
son is  ever  permitted  to  enter  a  Dutch  church  in  that  country. 
They  are  not  permitted  to  walk  upon  the  sidewalks.  They  are 
not  permitted  to  trade  in  any  way  whatever,  not  even  to  the 
extent  of  purchasing  a  basket  of  oranges  and  going  from  house 
to  house  to  retail  them.  They  are  not  permitted  to  own  even  a 
foot  of  land  in  the  country  that  only  two  generations  ago  was 
entirely  their  own."  Unfortunately  this  indictment  differs  in 
degree  rather  than  in  spirit  from  that  which  may  be  brought 
against  English  and  Dutch  alike  in  very  many  cases. 

Under  such  circumstances  is  there  any  occasion  to  wonder  at 
the  Ethiopian  Movement  in  that  land?  Another  South  African 
missionary  said  at  the  same  Conference :  "  Ten  thousand 
members  of  the  Wesleyan  Church  in  South  Africa  went  out  of 
that  Church  as  a  protest  against  the  prejudice  that  was  ex- 
hibited within  it ;  and  when  they  felt  their  own  weakness  and 
their  lack  of  leadership,  they  sent  one  of  their  number  over  to 
America  and  pleaded  with  the  African  Methodist  Church  to 
come  over  there  and  assume  the  leadership  of  them ;  and  Bishop 
Turner,  in  response  to  that  appeal,  went  over  there  and  re- 
ceived into  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  those 
10,000  members.  When  I  was  in  South  Africa-  only  a  few 
weeks  ago,  I  received  into  the  Baptist  Church  some  1,200  mem- 
bers, representing  some  seventeen  different  congregations." 
This  movement  affects  other  churches  than  the  Wesleyans  and 
other  sections  of  Africa,  notably  the  West  Coast.  The  Church 
Missionary  Society  has  met  the  difficulty  in  great  measure  by 
appointing  Africans  to  posts  of  high  responsibility  in  the 
Church,  while  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel, 
at  their  request,  constituted  as  the  Order  of  Ethiopia  a  large 


AFRICA  461 

proportion  of  those  whom  the  American  Bishop  Turner  re- 
ceived into  his  communion.  While  it  is  questionable  whether 
the  Ethiopian  Movement  will  prove  able  to  meet  the  unrest  of 
many  African  churches,-  it  is  arousing  the  sympathy  of  colored 
Christians  in  America  and  is  bringing  before  them  the  respon- 
sibilities that  they  owe  to  races  of  their  ancestral  home.  The 
question  of  their  ability  to  endure  as  well  as  the  stronger 
Anglo-Saxon  the  climatic  and  other  health  conditions  of  a  land 
from  which  they  have  been  expatriated  for  generations,  and 
their  less  confirmed  ability  to  meet  the  temptations  incident  to 
a  land  of  nakedness  and  moral  laxity,  is  a  mboted  one  with 
much  to  be  said  on  both  sides.  Enough  has  been  written  to 
show  how  serious  a  problem  missionaries  have  to  face  in  sec- 
tions where  white  and  black  meet  in  large  numbers,  and  where 
the  evils  of  Christendom  are  not  powerfully  offset  by  the  in- 
fluences of  Jesus. 

5.  Other  problems  and  difficulties  mentioned  by  missionaries 
in  different  parts  of  the  continent  are  the  following:  Evils 
common  to  lower  races  where  animalism  predominates,  such  as 
adultery,  polygamy,  beer-drinking  which  near  the  coast  has 
been  displaced  by  the  use  of  imported  liquors,  smoking  in  the 
same  coast  regions,  the  Western  sin  of  prostitution  learned 
from  white  men,  and  extravagance  of  all  sorts.  In  the  realm 
of  morals  and  religion,  only  the  grace  of  God  can  overcome  the 
tendency  to  deny  Christ's  divinity  and  the  dependence  on  works 
rather  than  a  life  of  faith  common  to  all  Mohammedan  com- 
munities; the  fatalism  of  the  same  religion  which  has  affected 
natives  among  whom  the  Moslem  lives ;  the  all-pervasive  be- 
lief in  spirits  over  whom  the  witch-doctor  claims  to  have  power, 
and  the  awful  loss  of  life  due  to  his  denunciation  of  persons 
supposed  to  have  bewitched  the  sufferer;  the  evils  consequent 
upon  ancestral  worship ;  blind  adherence  to  customary  religious 
practices ;  and  an  utter  lack  of  thought  and  care  concerning 
religion  on  the  part  of  vast  multitudes. 

6.  The  case  is  not  so  hopeless  as  the  preceding  paragraph 
would  lead  one  to  suppose.    There  exist  side  by  side  with  these 


462  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

obstacles  many  traits  and  beliefs  that  are  helpful  to  the  mis- 
sionaries. In  most  cases  Africans  are  hospitable  and  hence 
readily  receive  the  foreigner,  and  their  docility  makes  his 
teaching  effective.  Always  ready  to  listen  and  eager  to  learn 
new  things,  they  are  especially  willing  to  learn  from  the  white 
man  whom  they  reverence  and  look  upon  as  their  superior. 
There  is  much  in  their  religious  views  and  practices  that  leads 
up  to  the  higher  teachings  of  Christianity.  Thus  they  are  not 
atheistic,  like  Southern  Buddhists  or  Confucianists ;  they  have 
laws  of  morality  in  not  a  few  of  their  towns,  those  of  the  Kaf- 
irs resembling  Levitical  rules ;  their  worship  of  ancestors  and 
deification  of  heroes  easily  lend  themselves  to  the  Christian  ex- 
position of  immortality ;  in  many  sections  they  dimly  believe 
in  a  God  who  is  Creator  and  Father  of  men ;  and  like  sinners 
the  world  around,  they  have  a  vague  fear  of  future  retribu- 
tion and  a  present  desire  for  peace.  In  Mohammedan  Africa, 
there  is  of  course  a  firm  belief  in  God,  and  in  many  cases  a 
consciousness  of  sin,  combined  with  serious  attempts  to  satisfy 
the  obligations  of  prayer  and  good  works. 

III.  Ways  of  Working.  —  Only  a  few  of  those  that  are  em- 
phasized in  Africa  will  be  described  in  detail,  it  being  under- 
stood that  the  missionary  program  is  fully  as  broad  as  in  any 
other  field. 

I.  In  Mohammedan  Africa  medicine  is  especially  valuable  as 
an  opener  of  doors,  for  reasons  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
'In  other  sections  of  the  continent  it  is  even  more  needed,  as 
there  is  more  quackery  here  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world 
probably.  Since  disease  is  commonly  attributed  to  the  agency 
of  some  unfriendly  person  among  the  living,  who  must  be  put 
to  death  if  it  is  fatal,  the  work  of  healing  often  saves  two  lives 
for  the  single  cure. 

The  varieties  of  patients  cared  for  are  thus  described  by  Dr. 
Prentice,  who  labors  at  Bandawe  in  the  heart  of  Africa :  "  Let 
me  take  you  to  one  of  the  medical  mission  stations  and  show 
you  how  the  work  goes  on.  At  a  certain  hour  —  sometimes 
early  in  the  morning,  sometimes  in  the  afternoon  —  the  dis- 


AFRICA  463 

pensary  is  open,  when  the  doctor  is  at  home.  Before  the  pa- 
tients are  received  they  will  have  attended  the  worship  in  the 
school,  and  then  they  gather  on  the  verandah  at  the  dispen- 
sary door.  You  will  see  men,  women  and  children  who  have 
come,  or  been  carried,  from  the  surrounding  villages.  They 
are  there  with  ugly  ulcers,  malignant  tumors,  fractured  bones, 
inflamed  eyes,  blind,  deaf  and  cripple.  Sometimes  they  are 
brought  in  the  last  stages  of  disease  and  may  die  at  the  doc- 
tor's door;  and,  oftener  years  ago  than  now,  men  and  women 
almost  dead  from  having  drunk  the  terrible  poison  ordeal  are 
laid  down  for  treatment,  and  in  such  cases  great  promptitude 
on  the  doctor's  part  is  required  to  save  their  life.  Mothers 
bring  their  infants  suffering  from  fits  and  other  ailments  and 
thinking  that  they  have  been  bewitched.  The  doctor  spends 
hours  in  making  up  and  giving  suitable  medicines  to  each 
case  and  in  giving  instructions  as  to  treatment.  Each  one 
relieved  goes  away  happy,  thinking  well  of  the  doctor  and 
through  him  knowing  something  of  the  deep  meaning  of  Christ, 
who  is  the  Great  Physician." 

While  the  less  sensitive  nerves  of  Africans  do  not  require 
anccsthetics  as  commonly  as  those  of  their  civilized  brothers, 
when  administered,  their  renown  is  widely  heralded.  Mr. 
Jack  says  of  this  "  sleep  medicine  " ;  "  To  the  simple  natives  the 
cases  were  apparently  miraculous.  So  far  as  they  could  see, 
the  white  man  first  killed  the  patient,  and  then  when  quite 
dead  he  cut  the  trouble  out ;  then  he  bound  up  the  wound  and 
made  it  better;  and  then  finally  he  brought  the  patient  back 
to  life  again.  Every  cure,  too,  was  like  a  nail  in  the  coffin  of 
superstition  and  witchcraft."  So  confident  are  the  natives  that 
the  missionary  has  the  power  to  heal,  even  if  not  a  physician, 
that  some  of  them  are  forced  to  give  applicants  pills  made  of 
bread  or  some  similar  substance  merely  to  show  that  they  are 
willing  to  aid,  though  with  the  statement  that  they  are  not 
genuine  medicine  and  that  no  good  will  come  from  them. 

The  African  medical  missionary  is  not  surrounded  by  the 
dense  populations  of  China  or  India  and  hence  a  year's  record 


464  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

does  not  show  such  large  numbers  as  in  those  lands.  Yet  the 
average  hospital  or  dispensary  receives  2,500  different  patients 
annually  with  more  than  6,000  treatments.  The  proportion  of 
men,  women  and  children,  is  in  the  ratio  of  13  :6  :7  in  the 
cases  analyzed.  As  to  diseases,  they  will  vary  with  the  local- 
ity; but  in  an  inland  station,  where  fever  is  not  quite  so  prev- 
alent as  along  the  coast,  the  four  commonest  medical  cases  — 
beginning  with  the  most  numerous  —  are  abdominal  com- 
plaints, fevers,  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  rheumatism.  Sim- 
ilarly the  commonest  surgical  cases  are  ulcers  and  abscesses, 
skin  diseases,  eye  cases,  wounds. 

2.  If  medicine  can  enter  some  doors  where  no  other  form 
of  effort  is  desired,  evangelisation  is  often  possible  where  there 
is  no  ability  to  do  any  other  form  of  work.  Usually,  the 
audience  is  in  the  child  stage,  so  far  as  ability  to  grasp  new 
ideas  is  concerned ;  hence  the  truths  of  Christianity  must  be 
presented  very  simply  and  as  far  as  possible  through  object 
lessons.  Take  as  an  illustration  the  beginning  and  end  of 
evangelistic  effort  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Nyassa.  "  Object  les- 
sons were  given  with  the  view  not  merely  of  enlightening  the 
minds  of  the  natives,  but  leading  them  up  to  God  and  his  grace. 
The  first  lesson  was,  '  A  watch,  and  how  we  divide  our  time.' 
The  division  of  the  day  into  hours  was  explained  to  them  on 
a  large  blackboard.  The  information,  of  course,  had  to  be 
given  in  a  very  simple  form,  as  it  was  all  new  and  difficult 
to  them  —  as  difficult  as  a  lecture  on  polarization  of  light  would 
be  to  working  people  at  home.  The  watch  was  then  compared 
with  the  world,  and  it  was  shown  that  the  latter  must  have 
a  maker  as  well  as  the  former.  The  second  lesson  was,  '  Cot- 
ton and  its  uses,'  from  which  the  people  were  shown  the  neces- 
sity of  a  change  in  the  natural  heart  before  it  can  be  useful. 
The  third  was,  '  How  we  communicate  with  each  other,'  and 
from  this  they  were  taught  how  God  communicates  to  us  His 
love  and  grace."  Simple  Bible  stories  illustrated  by  colored 
cartoons  are  useful,  especially  those  from  the  Old  Testament. 

After  years  of  patient  toil  this  work,  with  the  other  agencies 


AFRICA  465 

to  be  named  later,  will  bring  us  to  the  fruitage  of  evangelistic 
effort,  which  is  vividly  described  by  the  former  Student  Volun- 
teer leader  of  Great  Britain,  Donald  Fraser,  writing  in  1898: 
"  On  Monday,  May  2,  the  strangers  began  to  arrive.  The 
first  to  come  were  from  Mperembe's,  the  great  warrior  chief. 
Mateyu,  the  teacher,  marched  at  their  head,  and  behind  him 
in  a  long  line  followed  nearly  seventy  people.  They  brought 
with  them  a  sheep  and  a  goat  which  Mperembe  had  sent  as  his 
contribution  to  the  Sabbath's  collections.  Next  day  towards 
evening  the  Njuyu  people  arrived.  We  could  see  them  wind- 
ing their  way  down  the  hillside  in  a  straggling  line  which 
stretched  back  for  nearly  a  mile.  Through  all  the  forenoon 
of  Wednesday  bands  of  people  continued  to  arrive,  sometimes 
marching  up  the  road  in  solid  phalanx  with  a  swinging  step, 
and  sometimes  in  long  drawn-out  Indian  file.  The  paths  to 
the  southward  were  alive  with  people ;  and  men  sat  on  the  ant- 
hills as  the  companies  passed  and  cried  out,  '  What  mean  these 
things?  Has  an  army  come  in  among  you?  Are  you  going 
to  a  new  country  ?  '  And  the  people  cried  back,  '  We  are  g'oing 
to  the  baptisms.  Come  and  see.'  On  Saturday  morning  we 
intended  to  baptize  the  adults  who  were  to  be  received  into  the 
Church ;  but  owing  to  a  cold,  drizzling  rain  we  deferred  it  to 
the  afternoon.  But  what  a  day  that  was !  None  such  has 
ever  been  seen  in  Nyassa-land.  We  baptized  195  adults  and 
on  Sabbath  afternoon  89  children  —  in  all  284  souls.  On 
Communion  Sabbath  our  monthly  collection  was  taken  at  the 
beginning  of  the  service.  We  counted  £1  8s.  in  money,  3  lbs. 
6  ozs.  of  small  beads,  1 1  knives,  i  ax,  2  hoes,  5  finger  rings,  3 
bracelets,  i  spear,  14  pots,  16  baskets,  i  mat,  67  fowls,  2 
goats,  2  sheep,  233  lbs.  of  maize,  34  lbs.  of  potatoes  and  62 
lbs.  of  pumpkins.  A  great  congregation  numbering  nearly 
4,000  assembled.  On  the  raised  platform  we  three  missiona- 
ries sat,  along  with  our  seven  native  elders.  Arranged  in  rows 
before  us  was  the  little  native  church  and  crowding  on  all  sides 
the  great  mass  of  people.  Hundreds  of  poor,  naked,  wander- 
ing women  stood  around  on  the  right,  and  on  a  large  ant- 


466  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

hill  to  the  left  sat  some  sixty  or  seventy  men,  many  of  them 
old  warriors,  looking  down  at  the  feast  below  and  wondering 
what  it  all  meant."  More  marvelous  scenes  have  subsequently 
been  witnessed  in  this  field  as  the  result  of  evangelistic  effort, 
while  in  Uganda  the  workers  in  connection  with  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  have  beheld  marvelous  Pentecosts. 

3.  Literary  work  is  somewhat  different  from  that  in  other 
mission  lands,  in  that  much  strength  is  spent  in  reducing  for 
the  first  time  the  languages  to  writing.  How  important  this 
form  of  effort  is  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that  Africa  has  at 
least  600  languages  and  dialects,  and  that  so  fundamental  a 
book  as  the  Bible  has  thus  far  been  translated  in  part  or  wholly 
into  only  115  of  them.  Pilkington  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society's  force  in  Uganda,  whose  great  linguistic  talent  was 
cut  short  by  death,  furnishes  an  excellent  illustration  of  how 
one  should  prepare  for  this  work.  In  order  to  fit  himself  for 
his  translational  labors,  he  took  infinite  pains  to  master  the 
idiom  and  to  clothe  Occidental  and  biblical  ideas  in  the  garb  of 
vernacular  speech.  "  It  is  necessary  to  know  their  similes  and 
metaphors,  as  well  as  the  mere  words.  What  European  would 
talk  of  having  ears  as  '  sharp  as  an  elephant's,'  or  being  as 
thin  —  not  as  a  poker  —  but  '  as  a  blade  of  grass  '  ;  or  of  being 
afraid  —  not  of  your  shadow  —  but  of  '  the  breaking  of  a  blade 
of  grass,'  etc.  ?  These  are  the  things  that  make  one  intelligible 
and  interesting  to  these  people,  but  to  get  to  use  them  natu- 
rally, without  effort,  is  extremely  difficult.  Then  their  prov- 
erbs! Half  of  our  English  ideas  are  only  translatable  by 
means  of  proverbs  into  Luganda.  For  example,  the  words  im- 
partial or  partial,  interested  or  disinterested,  would  have  to  be 
turned  by  using  the  proverb,  '  In  matters  that  concern  the  for- 
est, is  the  monkey  judge?  '  To  translate  the  expressions,  '  he's 
only  got  himself  to  thank,'  '  your  own  fault,'  etc.,  you  must 
use  a  proverb  about  sores  that  come  from  self-inflicted  cuttings 
in  the  flesh  for  ornamentation ;  and  nothing  else  would  be 
really  intelligible  to  these  people  in  that  context,  except  that 
particular  proverb." 


AFRICA  467 

4.  Education  is  a  manifest  necessity  in  a  land  of  dense  ig- 
norance. Dr.  Laws,  the  famous  missionary  of  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  writes  thus  in  speaking  of  the  experiences 
with  their  15,000  pupils  in  the  lake  region  and  their  enrollment 
of  30,000 :  "  You  get  a  class  of  boys  before  you,  and  you  begin 
by  showing  them  O  and  teaching  them  how  to  call  it.  You 
take  another  letter  and  another  and  another,  but  by  the  time 
you  have  got  over  four  or  five,  your  pupils  are  tired  and  it  is 
time  to  stop  that  day.  To-morrow  you  get  your  pupils  again 
and  the  next  day  and  the  next  day,  but  by  that  time  they  are 
very  tired  and  they  go  home  to  rest  a  week.  After  this  week's 
rest  perhaps  they  will  come  back  again.  They  remember  O 
because  it  is  round  like  the  moon;  but  depend  upon  it  they 
have  forgotten  all  the  other  letters,  and  you  have  to  begin 
your  work  all  over  again.  Perhaps  you  get  to  the  end  of  the 
alphabet  this  time ;  but  then  your  pupils  will  be  very  tired  in- 
deed, and  you  will  not  see  them  for  a  fortnight.  But  this  is 
not  all.  Your  pupils  see  that  you  pay  for  work,  and  they  soon 
come  to  tell  you  that  this  counting  of  letters  on  a  book  is  hard 
work  and  they  need  pay.  So  the  boys  attending  school  each 
got  a  slip  of  paper  and  it  was  marked  each  day.  Then  after  a 
month,  those  who  had  been  present  all  the  time  were  arranged 
in  rows,  —  those  who  learned  the  most  at  the  top,  —  and  there 
was  a  distribution  of  prizes.  The  one  at  the  top  of  the  class 
got,  perhaps,  three  needles ;  the  next  one  got  two  needles ;  the 
next,  one.  And  then  perhaps  another  would  get  two  pins,  an- 
other one  pin,  and  so  on ;  for  pins  were  turned  into  fishhooks 
as  soon  as  they  got  out  of  school.  Then  the  teacher  went 
around  with  a  bowl  of  something  white  and  a  teaspoon,  and 
each  one  got  a  teaspoonful  or  two  of  the  contents  of  the  bowl ; 
and  before  he  got  around  the  class  you  would  see  the  one  at 
the  top  busily  licking  this  white  stuff.  You  may  think  it  was 
sugar.  No,  it  was  salt.  Salt  was  a  very  precious  commodity 
in  Central  Africa. 

"  Now  what  is  the  outcome  of  all  this?  It  is  good.  It  is  a 
hard  thing  to  raise  a  population  the  length  of  the  alphabet. 


468  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Perhaps  you  don't  believe  me.  Take  a  picture  in  black  and 
white  and  the  natives  cannot  see  it.  You  may  tell  the  natives : 
*  This  is  a  picture  of  an  ox  and  a  dog/  and  the  people  will  look 
at  it  and  look  at  you,  and  that  look  says  that  they  consider  you 
a  liar.  Perhaps  you  say  again,  '  Yes,  that  is  a  picture  of  an 
ox  and  a  dog.'  Well,  perhaps  they  will  tell  you  what  they 
think  this  time.  If  there  are  a  few  boys  about,,  you  say :  '  This 
is  really  a  picture  of  an  ox  and  a  dog.  Look  at  the  horn  of 
the  ox,  and  there  is  his  tail.'  And  the  boy  will  say :  '  Oh ! 
yes,  and  there  is  the  dog's  nose  and  eyes  and  ears.'  Then  the 
old  people  will  look  again  and  then  they  clap  their  hands  and 
say,  '  Oh !  yes,  it  is  a  dog.'  When  a  man  has  seen  a  picture  for 
the  first  time,  his  book  education  has  begun." 

At  the  opposite  pole  of  the  educational  scheme  stands  the 
Asyut  College  of  the  United  Presbyterians  of  America,  labor- 
ing for  races  that  are  inheritors  of  learning  from  a  distant  past. 
This  is  probably  the  most  advanced  institution  for  the  natives 
to  be  found  in  Africa.  Of  the -value  of  this  thoroughly  Chris- 
tian and  scholarly  College,  Mr.  Penfield,  late  United  States 
Consul-General  in  Egypt,  writes  in  "  Present  Day  Egypt "  as 
follows :  "  Uninfluenced  by  political  motive,  the  schools  of  the 
American  Mission  have  done  tenfold  more  for  the  cause  of 
education  and  the  spread  of  the  English  language  in  Egypt 
than  has  Great  Britain.  The  College  of  the  Mission  at  Asyut 
is  a  model  institution  whose  standard  of  education  has  few 
rivals  in  the  Turkish  dominions."  That  the  natives  are  equally 
appreciative  of  its  advantages  is  shown  by  this  testimony  of 
the  Egyptian  Governor,  Heshmat  Pasha,  writing  in  1900: 
"  Through  its  influence  thousands  of  our  young  men  have  been 
trained  into  chaste  and  noble  character.  Many  of  these  have 
entered  the  school  from  most  humble  homes,  often  indeed  from 
homes  of  poverty,  and  they  are  now  living  in  comfortable  and 
honorable  stations  of  life.  Some  are  occupying  positions  of 
trust  in  the  Government  both  in  Egypt  and  the  Sudan ;  others 
have  entered  business  life  and  agriculture ;  and  others  have 
become  educators  and  ministers  of  the  gospel.     And  I  have 


AFRICA  469 

become  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  excellent  life  and  fidelity 
of  every  one  of  them  with  whom  I  have  become  personally  ac- 
quainted." 

What  the  spirit  of  its  students  is  may  be  seen  from  the 
reasons  given  by  some  of  them  for  deciding  to  turn  away  from 
flattering  offers  of  government  service  to  undertake  the  self- 
sacrificing  work  of  evangelizing  and  teaching  their  fellow- 
countrymen.  Abadir  Ibraheem :  "  Christ  commanded  us  to 
preach  the  gospel.  As  I  love  Him,  I  must  keep  His  command- 
ment." Kheelaylah  Masrood :  "  The  Lord's  work  is  wide  and 
the  workers  few.  Our  young  men  prefer  to  go  to  the  gov- 
ernment offices.  Therefore  I  choose  to  be  a  Christian  teacher, 
to  educate  the  small  boys  in  their  youth  so  as  to  be  progressive 
in  their  old  age."  Isshak  Ibraheem :  "  I  feel  that  I  am  under 
responsibility  because  of  the  religious  knowledge  the  Lord  hath 
given  me.  I  must  not  hide  the  light  I  have,  lest  my  brothers 
die  in  the  valley  of  darkness."  Hanna  Gabroos :  "  He  who 
knows  something  of  God  and  does  not  inform  others  is  re- 
sponsible before  God."  What  has  been  said  of  the  work  of 
this  Board  along  educational  lines  is  true  of  most  of  the  edu- 
cational efforts  of  all  societies. 

5.  A  special  branch  of  teaching  is  needed  more  in  Africa 
than  on  any  other  continent,  namely  industrial  education.  As 
Lovedale  is  the  typical  institution  and  its  head,  Dr.  Stewart, 
its  leading  advocate,  it  is  chosen  as  representative  of  many 
other  similar  schools  in  Africa.  Dr.  Stewart  says  of  the 
reasons  for  industrial  education:  "  Missionaries  may  be  asked 
why  they  trouble  themselves  with  it  and  lade  themselves  with 
the  thick  clay  of  such  occupations  and  distracting  responsibili- 
ties. The  answer  is  threefold.  They  have  done  so  from  a 
contemplation,  first,  of  the  life  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  labor,  if  they  are  a  barbarous  or  uncivilized  people.  Sec- 
ond, they  see  that  the  tide  of  advancing  civilization  is  rolling 
so  rapidly  over  certain  portions  of  the  globe,  that  barbarous 
peoples  must  accommodate  themselves  in  some  measure  to  its 
conditions  and  requirements,  or  be  swept  away.     Third,  among 


470  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

a  barbarous  people  one  of  the  most  formidable  barriers  to  the 
acceptance  of  the  gospel  is  the  indolence,  or  in  plainer  words, 
the  absolute  laziness,  which  marks  the  social  and. individual  life 
of  such  peoples.  This  indolence  is  the  result  of  generations  of 
hereditary  influence,  of  social  habits  and  customs,  and  is  also 
partly  due  to  the  influence  of  climate."  At  Lovedale  the 
moral  effect  upon  the  student  of  industrial  training  is  made 
the  primary  aim,  with  the  secondary  yet  inseparable  one  of 
aiding  him  to  gain  a  better  livelihood  than  that  of  a  day  la- 
borer. 

Though  the  Basle  missionaries  were  apparently  the  pioneers 
in  African  industrial  education  and  while  nearly  all  the  lead- 
ing societies  include  it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  their  pro- 
gram, Lovedale  differs  from  nearly  all  of  them  in  its  interde- 
nominational character,  though  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
has  sustained  it  in  the  past.  "  All  colors  and  nearly  every 
tribe  in  South  Africa,"  writes  Dr.  Noble,  "  are  found  at  Love- 
dale, a  few  coming  even  from  the  Shire  and  Zambezi  Rivers. 
No  influence  is  exerted  toward  having  students  leave  their  de- 
nomination or  join  the  Free  Church.  Students  of  theology 
training  as  workers  for  other  bodies  are  not  weakened  in  de- 
nominational loyalty.  .  .  .  The  educational  department 
comprises  three  courses,  each  three  years  long,  consisting 
respectively  of  elementary,  literary,  or  theological  study." 
Practical  work  like  carpentry,  wagon-making,  blacksmithing, 
book-binding,  printing,  sewing,  laundry  work  and  agriculture 
is  also  an  important  part  of  the  scheme,  while  instruction  in 
the  Bible  and  applied  Christianity  is  the  first  work  of  the  day 
for  every  class.  Statistics,  quoted  by  Dr.  Noble,  show  that 
at  least  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  2,000  who  at  the  time  of  writing 
had  left  Lovedale  had  led  industrious  and  useful  lives.  "  The 
educational  bureau  of  Cape  Colony  publishes  statistics  com- 
paring Lovedale  with  700  other  institutions  and  schools.  The 
comparison  shows  that  in  the  three  grades  forming  the  foun- 
dation of  practical  and  useful  knowledge  Lovedale  stands  first. 
In  the  secondary  and  the  higher  grades  Lovedale  occupies  only 


AFRICA  471 

the  second  place.  When  all  grades  of  merit  or  success  are 
grouped  together,  Lovedale  stands  first;  but  in  honors  and 
competency,  second ;  and  in  honors  alone,  merely  third." 

IV.  The  Tasks  of  the  African  Church. — While  the 
missionary  is  the  leader  in  every  good  work,  some  enterprises 
are  so  colossal,  or  else  so  private  and  personal,  that  there  is 
no  hope  of  meeting  the  needs  of  this  vast  continent  save 
through  the  native  Church. 

I.  The  first  labor  must  be  widespread  evangelisation. 
The  white  man  can  never  be  wholly  acclimated ;  the  native 
is  proof  against  much  that  would  kill  a  European,  though 
himself  subject  to  fevers  and  other  ills.  Moreover,  he  knows 
his  countrymen  far  better  than  the  missionary  can  hope  to  know 
them.  Unfortunately  Africans  do  not  readily  rally  in  this  in- 
terest, nor  prove  as  strong  in  the  work  as  natives  of  some  other 
lands.  Perhaps  the  Uganda  field  furnishes  the  best  illustra- 
tions of  evangelization,  where  as  long  ago  as  1895  there  were 
200  native  teachers  and  evangelists  scattered  over  the  country, 
entirely  supported  by  the  Church  of  Uganda  itself.  Their  pay 
was  about  $5.50  per  annum,  this  sufficing  for  clothing,  etc., 
their  food  being  provided  by  those  who  were  taught.  Pilking- 
ton  says  of  these  men :  "  The  Waganda  are  born  missionaries. 
They  are  splendid  travelers  and  in  ability  a  good  deal  above 
—  so  far  as  is  known  —  the  nations  around  them.  Their  coun- 
try is  an  island  in  a  vast  sea  of  ignorance." 

Dr.  Laws  of  the  Livingstonia  Mission  describes  the  method 
adopted  by  them  to  enlist  and  prepare  the  natives  for  evangel- 
istic work.  "  Every  baptized  person  who  is  received  into  the 
full  membership  in  Livingstonia,  undertakes  to  seek  the  exten- 
sion of  Christ's  kingdom.  The  women  are  expected  to  assist 
in  this  at  their  homes  and  in  their  own  villages.  The  men  are 
expected  in  addition  to  go  to  other  villages  to  preach.  That 
they  may  do  this  the  more  efficiently,  at  all  our  stations  where 
there  are  European  missionaries  and  at  the  stations  of  our  ad- 
vanced teachers,  the  male  members  of  the  Church  gather  on 
Friday  afternoons  to  what  is  known  as  the  preachers'  class. 


472  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

At  this  class  a  subject  on  which  they  are  to  preach  the  follow- 
ing Sabbath  is  studied,  and  arrangements  made  for  the 
preachers  going  out  two  and  two  to  the  different  villages. 
Some  of  these  companies  walk  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  to 
hold  these  services  and  the  same  distance  back,  and  for  this 
not  one  receives  a  farthing  of  pay." 

2.  As  the  Church  grows,  its  own  purity  and  even  its  ex- 
istence forces  it  to  meet  powerful  foes.  Slavery  and  the  traffic 
that  it  gives  rise  to  was  once  the  continent's  greatest  bane. 
To-day,  while  greatly  abated,  it  is  a  danger  to  many  an  African 
village  and,  in  so  far  as  it  is  internal  and  not  Mohammedan, 
it  must  be  put  down  by  a  better  sentiment  on  the  subject.  The 
Church  has  also  something  to  do  in  the  case  of  freed  slaves. 
Hitherto  the  missionaries  have  borne  this  burden ;  but  with 
the  peculiar  problems  arising  in  places  like  Pemba  and  Zanzi- 
bar native  Christians  must  aid  in  the  adjustment  to  the  life  of 
freedom.  The  passing  of  the  elephant  and  the  increasing  mile- 
age of  steam  navigation  and  railways  remove  much  of  the 
excuse  for  the  slave  traffic ;  but  in  newly  entered  communi- 
ties where  virtual  if  not  actual  slaveholding  is  prevalent,  the 
Church  can  do  more  than  any  other  factor  toward  putting  it 
down. 

3.  Perhaps  the  African  Church  is  troubled  more  by  the 
question  of  polygamy  than  that  of  any  other  land,  for  the  reason 
that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  converts  have  more  than  one 
wife.  Admitting  that  the  equitable  disposition  of  women  who 
have  been  married  in  heathen  days  is  a  most  difficult  prob- 
lem, it  is  nevertheless  one  that  most  of  the  native  Christian 
leaders  feel  must  be  solved,  if  the  individual  and  the  Church 
are  to  live  a  pure  life. 

Intimately  connected  with  polygamy  as  an  inducing  cause 
are  all  the  other  woes  of  African  womanhood.  The  greatest 
sufferer  from  these  is  not  the  negress,  for  she  has  far  more 
privileges  and  greater  rights  than  her  Mohammedan  sister  of 
the  North.  The  Church  of  North  Africa  except  in  Egypt,  is 
still  too  weak  to  effect  any  changes  in  sentiment,  save  among 


AFRICA 


473 


its  own  membership.  The  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses  and  ladies 
of  the  North  Africa  Mission  and  Church  Missionary  Society, 
are  the  chief  workers  for  these  daughters  of  Ishmael.  Miss 
Whately's  memory  —  "  Bishop  "  Mary  Whately  —  will  be  held 
in  lasting  remembrance  all  over  Lower  Egypt,  and  her  tireless 
devotion  is  imitated  by  no  less  consecrated  and  talented  succes- 
sors. In  Black  Africa  this  task  of  raising  woman  to  her  rightful 
place  belongs  to  the  native  Christians.  Education  is  appre- 
ciated by  negro  girls  as  much  as  in  Egypt,  where  in  the  United 
Presbyterian  schools  one-third  of  the  pupils  are  girls.  .  Edu- 
cated women  are  not  only  a  necessity  for  elevating  the  home 
life,  but  in  church  work  men  like  Mackay  are  hampered  by 
the  feeling  of  delicacy  in  dealing  with  women,  an  experience 
that  native  preachers  share  in  less  degree. 

To  suppose  that  because  of  woman's  degradation,  her  influ- 
ence is  slight  and  hence  her  uplifting  unimportant  is  to  betray 
ignorance  of  conditions  in  this  land  of  woman's  rights.  Two 
incidents  will  indicate  her  place  in  society;  both  are  quoted 
from  Mrs.  Duncan  McLaren.  "  Look  for  a  moment  on  this 
picture.  It  is  a  meeting  of  men  gathered  together  by  an  hon- 
ored servant  of  God  who  has  been  pioneering  amid  the  wilds 
and  has  called  the  men  together  to  tell  them  among  other  things 
that  they  ought  to  make  a  proper  road  as  a  step  toward  civiliza- 
tion. Such  a  proposal  is  far  from  winning  the  men's  ap- 
proval. One  voices  the  opposition  with  the  characteristic  as- 
sertion that  *  never  since  the  Zambezi  ran  into  the  sea  was 
such  a  thing  dreamt  of,  that  they  should  make  a  road  for  other 
people  to  walk  on.'  But  away  at  the  back  of  the  crowd  there 
is  a  woman  who,  with  quick  intuition,  has  grasped  the  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  this  proposed  roadway,  and  rising  she 
announces  that  she  will  give  three  weeks'  work  to  help  make  it. 
Her  words  change  entirely  the  attitude  of  the  men ;  the  road 
is  made.  Take  another  picture.  The  scene  lies  far  up  the 
Cross  River  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The  women  of  Un- 
wana  are  displeased  with  a  certain  action  the  men  have  taken 
and  they  make  up  their  minds,  at  the  instigation  of  the  old 


474  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

women,  to  leave  the  town.  They  actually  carry  this  threat  out, 
and  the  missionary  who  sent  the  news  home  added  feelingly, 
'  And  the  town  was  quiet  for  once !  '  Now  before  these  women 
would  return,  they  had  to  be  coaxed  and  bribed,  and  still  they 
threaten  to  go  away  again  unless  they  get  their  own  way. 
Such  examples  show  clearly  the  immense  importance  of  bring- 
ing heathen  women  to  the  Saviour's  feet,  that  their  God-given 
influence  may  be  used  to  advance  the  kingdom  of  righteous- 
ness." 

4.  The  part  that  the  Native  Church  must  play  in  the  exter- 
mination of  intemperance  is  evident  in  remote  stations  where 
the  liquors  of  Christendom  have  not  penetrated.  Beer-drink- 
ing has  been  successfully  fought  in  many  a  church,  and  where 
it  is  forbidden  without  compromise  to  members,  there  is  steady 
progress.  Southeastern  Africa  and  missions  on  the  lakes  have 
seen  the  most  marked  progress  along  temperance  lines.  As 
for  coast  towns  and  river  valleys  where  rum  pours  in  on  the 
defenseless  inhabitants  like  a  flood,  the  Native  Church  has  far 
less  responsibility  for  the  evil  than  the  Church  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  Great  Britain,  or  of  Germany.  Nevertheless  the 
activity  of  temperance  organizations  in  many  missions  shows 
what  can  and  must  be  done,  if  Christianity  is  to  maintain  its 
life  and  purity. 

V.  Africa's  Hopes  and  Needs.  —  The  long  line  of  pres- 
ent-day heroes  and  heroines ;  the  chronicles  of  nearly  a  hun- 
dred Protestant  missionary  societies  laboring  for  the  Dark  Con- 
tinent, all  of  which  contain  pages  that  well-nigh  match  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles;  the  political  conditions,  present  and 
prospective,  in  their  bearing  on  the  future ;  the  progress  of 
commerce  and  trade  in  their  paradoxical  influence  on  mission- 
ary operations ;  a  hundred  other  topics  which  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered were  space  available  —  all  must  be  passed  by.  So 
magnificent  a  field,  however,  should  grant  its  advocates  an 
opportunity  to  say  a  word  at  least  in  the  way  of  appeal. 

I.  And  first  a  voice  from  the  dead,  the  voice  of  a  princely 
scholar,  a  spirit-filled  evangelist,  who  fell  asleep  four  years 


AFRICA  475 

ago  in  his  thirty-third  year,  George  Lawrence  Pilkington,  of 
Uganda.  As  they  were  taking  him  from  the  fight  of  the 
banana  gardens,  a  native  Christian  said  to  him,  "  He  that  be- 
Heveth  in  Christ,  although  he  die,  yet  shall  he  live."  The  dy- 
ing man  replied,  "  Yes,  my  child,  it  is  as  you  say  —  shall  never 
die."  After  they  had  carried  him  to  the  rear  of  the  firing  line, 
he  said :  "  Thank  you,  my  friends,  you  have  done  well  to  take 
me  off  the  battlefield ;  and  now  give  me  rest,"  —  after  which 
he  entered  into  the  rest  that  remaineth.  This  is  his  message. 
"  We  have  stood  together  now  in  fancy  on  Namirembe's  far- 
viewing  summit ;  we  have  looked  across  Unyoro's  plains  into 
the  far  Nile  Valley  and  the  vast  Sudan ;  we  have  gazed  in  im- 
agination across  the  Albert  on  into  the  Great  Forest  and  won- 
dered when  that  strange  pygmy  race  will  learn  that  they,  too, 
are  objects  of  the  Eternal  Love.  We  have  looked  across  many 
a  mile  into  wild  Kavirondo;  we  have  pictured  the  great  Lake 
the  center  of  a  united,  active  Church,  sending  its  evangelists 
east  and  west,  north  and  south,  to  many  nations  and  many 
tongues.  But  now  comes  the  question,  is  it  all  to  end  here? 
Oh,  let  us  be  real !  Emotion  is  no  substitute  for  action.  You 
love  Africa,  do  you  ?  *  God  so  loved  that  He  gave  '  —  God 
gave  —  what  ?  Superfluities  ?  Leavings  ?  That  which  cost 
Him  nothing?  '  When  ye  shall  have  done  all,  say.  We  are  un- 
profitable servants ;  we  have  done  that  which  was  our  duty 
to  do.'  If  we  are  doing  less  than  all,  we  are  robbing  God. 
We  salve  our  consciences  by  doing  a  little,  and  refuse  to  rec- 
ognize the  fact  that  the  work  for  which  the  Lord  died  is  not 
being  done.  Let  us  confess  that  hitherto  we  have  only  been 
playing  at  missions.  God  has  given  us  much  more  than  our 
miserable  efforts  have  deserved.  Let  us  begin  in  a  new  way; 
new  prayer,  new  giving,  new  going.  The  World  for  Christ, 
Christ  for  the  World,  in  this  generation !  " 

2.  The  second  word  comes  from  one  of  the  splendid  tro- 
phies of  missions,  the  prominent  Christian  leader  of  Natal,  John 
L.  Dube.  Within  a  year  he  has  written,  in  "  A  Native  View  of 
South  Africa,"  these  stirring  sentences :  "  If  Jesus  Christ  could 


47o  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

only  come  quickly  and  reign,  what  a  blessing  to  men !  How  He 
would  provide  a  way  to  realize  the  beauty  of  holiness  and  peace. 
The  field  is  great,  the  missionaries  few,  and  the  earnest  Chris- 
tian citizens  are  but  a  handful  —  a  remnant.  How  to  influ- 
ence men  aright  when  the  passions  are  aroused  by  what  the 
white  man  calls  his  rights  is  beyond  the  solving  of  any  one  in 
this  world,  and  God  only  can  prepare  a  way  for  us  natives. 
Oh,  that  the  Christian  Church  would  flood  South  Africa  with 
Christian  missionaries,  and  give  sufficient  money  to  establish 
institutions,  where  natives  may  be  trained  as  leaders  to  combat 
the  evil  influences  which  we  fear!  This  land  is  a  great  land 
of  sorrow !  Heathen  and  Christian,  Boer  and  Briton,  native 
and  foreigner,  capital  and  labor  assimilation,  federation,  self- 
government  and  many  other  problems  will  give  rise  to  much 
bitterness  and  treachery.  Were  it  not  for  our  faith  in  God, 
who  is  able  to  cause  the  wrath  of  man  to  praise  Him,  the  out- 
look would  be  gloomy  indeed ;  but  our  hope  is  in  the  Ever- 
lasting Father  and  the  Prince  of  Peace." 


XVIII 
MADAGASCAR  AND  OTHER  AFRICAN  ISLANDS 

PART  I.  —  GENERAL 

I.  Journey  from  Tamatave  to  Antananarivo.  —  Mada- 
gascar is  not  "  The  Universe,"  as  its  native  name  Izao  rehetra 
izao  signifies,  though  it  is  the  third  largest  island  of  the  globe, 
if  Australia  is  reckoned  as  a  continent.  Its  maximum  length 
is  approximately  the  same  as  the  distance  from  New  York  to 
Chicago,  with  a  breadth  equal  to  the  distance  from  the  former 
city  to  Richmond,  Va.  One  can  get  a  fair  idea  of  its  various 
physical  features  by  journeying  in  a  palanquin  —  the  ordinary 
mode  of  traveling  —  from  the  leading  port,  Tamatave,  to  its 
only  large  city  and  capital,  Antananarivo. 

1.  The  Coast  Region.  —  Carried  on  the  indurated  shoul- 
ders of  native  bearers, .  the  traveler  first  proceeds  southward 
along  the  coast.  The  scenery  is  that  of  a  beautiful  park,  with 
turf  soft  and  velvety  and  groups  of  tropical  trees,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  beautiful  orchids  which  delight  the  beholder 
with  their  rich  luxuriance  of  white  shell-like  blossoms. 
"  Sometimes  twelve  or  fifteen  distinct  plants,  each  full  of 
waxen  flowers,  may  be  seen  growing  on  a  single  decayed  tree 
trunk.  Ferns  and  climbing  plants  surround  the  larger  trees 
in  rich  abundance." 

2.  Upward  through  the  Forest  Belt.  —  As  one  turns  from 
the  Indian  Ocean  toward  the  interior,  an  agreeable  change  is 
experienced  in  the  canoe  ride  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles  up  a 
river  the  banks  of  which  are  dotted  with  small  villages  and  bor- 
dered with  patches  of  cultivated  ground.     The  surface  cultiva- 

477 


47^  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tion  noted  shows  a  rich  soil  and  gives  promise  of  marvelous 
results  under  better  tillage.  Disembarking  at  the  town  of 
Maromby,  the  palanquin  is  resumed  and  the  hill  region  is  en- 
tered. This  perfect  mass  of  hills  increases  in  height  as  one 
advances  westward.  The  vegetation  is  different,  however, 
from  what  was  seen  along  the  coast;  and  for  a  time  hardly 
any  trees  are  met  with  except  "  the  raofia  palm,  the  traveler's 
tree,  with  its  fan-like  spreading  leaves,  and  the  bamboo,  which 
with  its  bright  green  feathery  leaves  and  its  wondrously  grace- 
ful curves,  gives  an  indescribable  charm  to  the  landscape." 
After  two  or  three  days'  journeying,  the  traveler  passes  into 
the  second  characteristic  region  of  Madagascar,  namely,  the 
great  forest  belt,  which  almost  surrounds  the  island  like  the 
platter  rim  mentioned  as  being  characteristic  of  the  African 
continent.  Nervous  persons  find  here  some  difficulty,  since 
the  track  is  exceedingly  steep  and  rough ;  but  the  experienced 
and  sure-footed  bearers  cheerfully  pursue  their  way,  now  wad- 
ing knee-deep  through  the  marshy  valley,  now  following  the 
bed  of  some  mountain  stream,  and  anon  facing  bravely  one  of 
those  steep  ascents,  or  cautiously  descending  into  the  next 
valley,  the  descent  being  often  a  more  serious  undertaking  than 
the  climb  upwards.  In  this  particular  section  of  the  forest 
belt,  two  days  of  travel  bring  one  to  the  third  feature  of  Mada- 
gascar topography,  the  inland  plateau. 

3.  The  Interior  Highlands.  —  After  passing  through  one 
of  the  most  luxuriant  tropical  regions  of  the  world,  disap- 
pointment is  felt  as  one  gazes  upon  a  territory  containing  per- 
haps 100,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the  entire 
island.  A  prominent  missionary,  Rev.  James  Sibree,  thus  de- 
scribes this  region :  "  The  general  face  of  the  interior  country 
consists  of  bare  rolling  moors  from  which  unstratified  rocks 
protrude,  and  form  the  highest  parts  of  the  hills.  These  have 
mostly  a  rounded  dome  or  boss-like  outline,  but  in  some  dis- 
tricts present  a  very  varied  and  picturesque  appearance,  resem- 
bling Titanic  castles,  cathedrals,  pyramids  and  spires."  Oc- 
casionally hilltops  crowned  with  ancient  fig  trees,  villages  built 


MADAGASCAR   AND    OTHER   AFRICAN    ISLANDS         4/9 

of  red  soil,  perched  here,  there  and  in  all  directions,  and  little 
valleys  carefully  cultivated  for  rice,  give  variety  to  what  is 
otherwise  a  barren  scene.  As  one  approaches  the  capital,  how- 
ever, the  valley  becomes  far  spreading,  and  it  is  one  of  the 
great  rice  districts  of  Madagascar. 

4.  Antananarivo. —  Standing  upon  a  ridge  elevated  some  700 
feet  above  the  plain,  the  capital  makes  a  very  strong  impression 
upon  all  travelers  coming  from  the  somewhat  desolate  region 
behind.  Many  years  ago  Mr.  Cameron,  the  correspondent  of 
the  London  "  Standard,"  thus  described  this  first  view  of  the 
capital :  "  Antananarivo  itself  was  in  sight ;  and  we  could 
plainly  see  the  glass  windows  of  the  palace  glistening  in  the 
morning  sun  on  the  top  of  the  long  hill  on  which  the  city  was 
built.  It  was  Sunday,  and  the  people  were  clustering  along 
the  footpaths  on  their  way  to  church,  or  sitting  in  the  grass 
outside  waiting  for  the  service  to  begin,  as  they  do  in  villages 
at  home.  The  women,  who  appeared  to  be  in  the  majority, 
wore  their  cotton  gowns,  often  neatly  embroidered,  and  white 
—  or  black  and  white  —  striped  lambas  thrown  gracefully  over 
their  shoulders.  The  men  were  clad  also  in  cotton  —  white 
cotton  pantaloons,  cotton  lambas,  and  straw  hats  with  large 
black  silk  band.  In  the  morning  sun  the  play  of  colors  over 
the  landscape  was  lovely.  The  dark  green  hills,  studded  with 
the  brilliant  red  brick  houses  of  the  inhabitants,  whose  white 
garments  dotted  the  lanes  and  footpaths,  contrasted  with  the 
brighter  emerald  of  the  rice  fields  in  the  hollows.  The  soil 
everywhere  is  deep  red,  almost  magenta,  in  color,  and  where 
the  roads  or  pathways  cross  the  hills,  they  shine  out  as  if  so 
many  paint-brushes  had  streaked  the  country  in  broad  red 
stripes.  Above  all,  the  spires  of  the  strange  city,  set  on  the  top 
of  its  mountain,  with  a  deep  blue  sky  for  a  background,  added 
to  the  beauty  of  the  scene.  It  was  difficult  to  imagine  that  this 
peaceful  country,  with  its  pretty  cottages,  its  innumerable 
chapels  whose  bells  were  then  calling  its  people  to  worship  and 
its  troops  of  white-robed  men  and  women  answering  the  sum- 
mons, was  the  barbarous  Madagascar  of  twenty  years  ago." 


480  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

5.  The  Peculiar  Country  of  "  Lemuria."  —  While  typical 
scenery  has  thus  been  described,  wider  experience  would  be 
needed  to  realize  the  numerous  peculiarities  of  this  "  Great  Af- 
rican Island."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  peculiarities  mentioned 
make  it  seem  quite  evident  that  originally  it  was  not  so  much 
African  as  Indo-African.  As  to  its  inhabitants,  the  ruling  class 
as  well  as  their  now  almost  universal  language  manifestly  came 
from  India,  or  Malaysia.  Moreover,  its  flora  and  fauna  are 
such  as  prove  that  it  must  have  been  from  the  remotest  times 
separated  from  the  adjacent  continent. 

6.  The  climate  is  naturally  somewhat  unhealthful,  espec- 
ially along  the  coast  and  on  the  western  side  of  the  island.  As 
there  is  also  a  considerable  area  of  marshy  land  and  many 
lagoons,  malarial  fever  is  prevalent,  and  often  fatal.  In  the 
elevated  interior  districts,  however,  there  is  no  intense  heat 
and  the  climate  may  be  considered  quite  healthy. 

II.  The  Malagasy,  —  This  name  is  hardly  justifiable, 
though  commonly  used  to  describe  the  composite  population 
of  the  island. 

1.  The  chief  races  in  point  of  numbers  are  the  dominant 
Hova  race,  numbering  perhaps  a  million ;  the  Sakalava,  about 
equally  numerous  and  dwelling  in  the  West ;  the  Betsileo, 
dwelling  south  of  the  Hova,  and  numbering  perhaps  600,000; 
the  Betsimisaraka,  along  the  eastern  coast,  with  perhaps  400,- 
000 ;  and  the  Bara,  of  the  South,  numbering  200,000.  Adding 
other  less  important  tribes,  a  total  population  of  3,500,000  is 
reached. 

2.  The  two  leading  races,  however,  are  the  first  ones  men- 
tioned. The  Sakalava,  who  occupy  nearly  the  whole  west 
coast,  are  very  probably  African  in  origin,  belonging  perhaps 
to  the  Bantu  stock.  They  are  the  rudest  though  not  the  dark- 
est and  most  negroid  of  the  Malagasy  peoples.  Like  the  Hova, 
they  were  apparently  a  small  tribe  and  from  their  southwestern 
home  they  "  acquired  the  ascendency  over  all  western  groups, 
just  as  the  Hova  became  dominant  on  the  central  plateau." 
They  are  restless,  warlike  and  quarrelsome,  and  have  been  the 


MADAGASCAR   AND    OTHER    AFRICAN    ISLANDS         481 

great  slave-dealers  of  the  island,  supplying  "  the  Arab  traders 
with  slaves  stolen  from  the  interior  in  exchange  for  guns  and 
powder.  Their  gun  is  their  inseparable  companion;  and  it  is 
said  that  they  will  not  lay  it  down  even  to  wash  their  face, 
but  will  wash  one  side  of  the  face  first,  letting  their  gun  rest 
meanwhile  on  the  other  shoulder."  Bands  of  robbers  which 
have  harassed  the  borderlands  of  the  central  plateau  have  been 
recruited  from  these  people. 

The  Hova  are  very  evidently  ancient  immigrants  from  the 
Northeast  who  were  carried  in  stray  canoes,  it  may  be,  over  the 
broad  ocean  to  their  new  home.  While  constituting  less  than 
one-third  of  the  population  of  the  entire  island,  their  rulers 
were  supreme  during  the  last  century,  until  the  recent  French 
occupation ;  and  the  language  which  they  brought  with  them 
has  become  the  accepted  speech  of  all  other  Madagascar  peo- 
ples. They  have  less  alien  blood  in  their  veins  than  is  found  in 
the  leading  races  mentioned.  Though  during  the  time  of  their 
ascendency  their  rule  was  oppressive,  they  are  nevertheless  a 
progressive  people  and  very  willing  to  assimilate  modern  civ- 
ilization. It  is  the  Hova  who  have  accepted  Christianity  most 
readily;  and  they  have  come  so  far  under  its  influence  that 
they  have  taken  a  very  helpful  part  in  the  higher  development 
of  Madagascar. 

3.  Some  characteristics  common  to  Malagasy  life  may  be 
mentioned.  They  have  been  called  living  compasses,  as  to  a 
greater  extent  even  than  the  Chinese  they  apply  the  sense  of 
direction  to  the  commonest  acts  of  life.  Thus  a  missionary 
was  once  told  that  there  was  a  crumb  on  his  northern  mus- 
tache. While  accounts  are  given  of  many  who  live  in  the 
woods,  chiefly  on  the  trees,  Malagasy  houses  are  usually  well- 
built  and  were  formerly  constructed  according  to  the  same  plan, 
one  feature  being  "  the  prayer  corner,"  which  was  at  the  north- 
east, in  which  direction  any  one  offering  prayer  would  turn. 
Their  food  is  so  essentially  rice  that  to  prepare  a  meal  is  "  to 
cook  rice,"  as  in  China,  and  "  to  eat  rice  "  means  simply  to  take 
a  meal.     Like  the  nation  just  mentioned,  the  acme  of  delight 


482  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

is  here  reached  when  a  Malagasy  experiences  pleasant  sensa- 
tions of  satiety. 

4.  Notwithstanding  the  variety  of  races  of  Madagascar, 
the  language  is  but  one,  namely,  the  Malaysian  tongue,  which 
has  been  little  modified  since  the  ancient  immigrants  came  to 
Madagascar.  It  is  suggested  by  Professor  Keane  that  since 
it  contains  practically  no  Sanskrit  words,  as  is  true  of  the 
Malaysian  speech  of  to-day,  they  must  have  emigrated  from 
their  distant  home  before  the  Hindu  missionaries,  more  than 
two  millenniums  ago,  carried  Sanskrit  into  Malaysia.  The  va- 
rious dialects  differ  as  little  as  the  speech  of  the  old-time  ne- 
gro from  that  of  the  Bostonian,  or  as  the  dialect  of  Lancashire 
from  that  of  Somersetshire.  When  Europeans  in  the  sixteenth 
century  became  well  acquainted  with  Madagascar,  no  written 
literature  was  apparently  in  existence ;  so  that  all  that  may  be 
learned  concerning  them  is  through  traditions  and  other  some- 
what untrustworthy  sources. 

III.  Religion  at  the  Coming  of  the  Missionaries. — 
I.  When  in  1820  the  Welsh  pioneers  of  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society  reached  the  island  they  found  a  religious  people. 
Mr.  Cousins,  a  recent  missionary,  describes  the  religion  of  the 
time  as  being  an  ancestral  worship,  combined  with  the  service 
of  sun,  moon,  stars,  mountains  and  cities.  Prayers  and  sacri- 
fices were  offered  to  the  spirits  as  well  as  to  the  objects  just 
named.  As  on  the  continent,  the  fear  of  witchcraft  had  ter- 
rific power,  and  the  ordeal  by  poison  was  quite  as  deadly  as 
there.  Divination  and  a  belief  in  lucky  or  unlucky  days  exer- 
cised great  influence  over  the  people ;  while  the  belief  in  fate 
was  almost  as  powerful  as  among  Mohammedans.  Sacrifice, 
however,  might  turn  aside  threatening  evil. 

2.  They  likewise  found  certain  elements  in  the  beliefs  and 
customs  of  the  people  that  were  stepping-stones  to  a  truer  faith. 
Mr.  Cousins  mentions  some  of  these.  "  There  was,  for  in- 
stance, no  ancient  religious  literature  appealing  to  the  ven- 
eration and  conservatism  of  the  people.  Again,  there  was 
nothing  exactly  answering  to  the  priestly  caste  that  exists  in 


MADAGASCAR    AND    OTHER    AFRICAN    ISLANDS         483 

SO  many  lands,  and  forms  a  mighty  barrier  against  the  en- 
trance of  a  new  religion.  Finally,  the  religion  of  the  Malagasy 
possessed  little  cohesion  and  self-consistency.  Apparently  de- 
rived from  various  sources  and  composed  of  heterogeneous  ele- 
ments, it  was  never  able  to  present  a  firm  front  to  the  ag- 
gressive spirit  of  Christianity.  Hence  it  had  not  the  power  of 
resistance  possessed  by  many  of  the  more  ancient  and  elabo- 
rate religions  of  the  East.  But  better  than  all  this,  there 
existed  side  by  side  with  all  the  idolatry  and  superstition, 
a  tradition  that  a  purer  religion  had  once  existed,  and 
that  the  ancient  faith  of  the  people  had  been  a  simple 
theism." 

Another  help  which  missionaries  too  seldom  avail  themselves 
of  was  found  in  "Proverbs  of  the  Ancients,"  of  which  the  Mala- 
gasy were  exceedingly  fond.  Thus  this  one  sounds  as  if  taken 
from  "Pilgrim's  Progress  "  :  "  Like  a  little  chicken  drinking 
water,  it  looks  up  to  God  "  ;  that  is,  God  is  greater  than  the 
imagination  of  man.  Another  was  used  by  the  missionaries 
to  remind  the  people  of  God's  omnipresence  and  watchfulness : 
"  Think  not  of  the  silent  valley  [that  is  as  affording  an  oppor- 
tunity for  committing  crime]  ;  for  God  is  over  our  head."  St. 
Paul's  statement  concerning  God's  winking  at  the  times  of  ig- 
norance finds  a  parallel  in  their  proverb,  "  There  is  nothing  un- 
known to  God,  but  He  intentionally  bows  down  His  head  " 
[that  is  so  as  not  to  see]. 

IV.  Islands  of  the  Western  Indian  Ocean.  —  The  iso- 
lated islands  or  groups  east  and  northeast  of  Madagascar  differ 
from  the  African  islands  of  the  South  Atlantic,  which  are,  so  to 
speak,  like  "  a  man-of-war,"  as  Ascension  is  regarded,  or  an 
"  island  prison,"  like  St.  Helena.  The  principal  ones  that  have 
been  scenes  of  missionary  effort,  are  two  in  number. 

I.  Mauritius,  or  the  Isle  of  France,  will  be  recalled  as  the 
burial  place  of  Harriet  Newell,  one  of  the  earliest  of  American 
women  missionaries.  It  is  a  plateau  rising  into  three  principal 
groups  of  mountains  and  fringed  by  coral  reefs.  Mauritius  is 
now  a  Crown  Colony  of  Great  Britain  and    two-thirds  of  its 


484  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

population  is  made  up  of  immigrants  from  India.     The  total 
number  of  inhabitants  in  1891  was  nearly  371,000. 

2.  The  Seychelles  Archipelago  lies  930  miles  north  of 
Mauritius  and  consists  of  thirty-four  islands,  many  of  them 
merely  uninhabited  rocks.  One  characteristic  product  is  the 
double  cocoanut,  which  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  world. 
Cocoanut  oil  and  vanilla  are  the  staple  products.  Most  of  its 
16,440  inhabitants  are  of  African  descent,  with  a  few  natives 
of  French  origin. 

3.  Other  islands  like  Rodrigues  and  the  Chagos  Archipel- 
ago are  of  less  importance  and  are  largely  occupied  for  the 
production  of  cocoanut  oil.  The  French  island  of  Reunion,  or 
Bourbon,  lies  to  the  southwest  of  Mauritius.  Its  population 
in  1897  was  173,192,  mainly  French;  though  there  were  15,- 
219  Hindus  and  14,344  Africans  and  natives  of  Madagascar. 
A  volcanic  range  constitutes  its  backbone,  and  among  its  peaks 
is  one  of  the  most  active  volcanoes  in  the  world. 

V.  Atlantic  Groups.  —  i.  The  Madeiras. — These  islands 
lie  off  the  northwest  coast  of  the  continent  on  the  ocean  high- 
way between  Great  Britain  and  South  Africa.  They  constitute 
one  of  the  great  sanatoria  of  the  world,  especially  for  those  suf- 
fering from  pulmonary  complaints.  This  is  due  to  the  mild- 
ness of  the  climate  and  the  lack  of  excessive  rains.  While  the 
southern  half  of  Madeira,  the  main  island,  is  treeless  and  arid 
in  the  summer,  the  north  side  is  more  luxuriant  and  fertile. 
"  Travelers  praise  the  golden  splendor  of  the  wide  expanses  of 
gorse  and  broom  in  blossom,  and  of  the  marvelous  masses  of 
color  —  pink,  mauve  and  brick-dust  red  —  of  the  flora  of  the 
island."  Its  inhabitants,  who  numbered  134,000  in  1890,  are 
"  of  mixed  Portuguese,  Moorish  and  negro  descent ;  they  are  of 
vigorous  frame,  lively  and  industrious,  economical  and  simple 
in  their  habits."  The  Government  is  non-progressive  and  the 
state  religion  is  Roman  Catholicism,  with  nominal  toleration  of 
other  creeds. 

2.  Cape  Verde  Islands.  —  Like  the  Madeiras,  this  group, 
lying  400  miles  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  is  a  possession  of 


MADAGASCAR    AND    OTHER   AFRICAN    ISLANDS         485 

Portugal.  The  islands  are  volcanic  in  character  and  are  all 
very  mountainous.  While  lacking  in  moisture,  "  vegetation  is 
luxuriant,  yielding  African  and  Southern  European  products. 
The  climate  is  unhealthful  during  the  rainy  season  —  August 
to  October  —  fever  and  dysentery  being  the  chief  scourges ;  and 
long  droughts  have  sometimes  given  rise  to  great  famines," 
that  of  1831-33  having  cost  30,500  lives.  The  people  are 
mostly  negroes  or  mulattoes  and  are  —  with  rare  exceptions  — 
Catholics.  Harmlessly  indolent,  they  speak  a  patois  of  the 
Portuguese,  and  in  1896  numbered  114,130.  In  the  dry  years 
the  islands  suffer  from  emigration  to  Brazil  and  British  Guiana. 


PART   II.  —  MISSIONARY 

I.  The  Missionary  Forces.  —  Those  concerning  which 
details  are  given  in  Volume  II  number  twelve.  Five  are  Amer- 
ican, five  are  British  and  two  are  Continental.  Collectively 
they  have  284  foreign  workers,  with  68,207  communicants  and 
103,165  adherents  under  their  care. 

II.  Madagascar.  —  This  land  of  glorious  martyrdom  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  of  mission  fields,  though  much  of 
that  interest  centers  in  its  history,  with  which  the  present  work 
has  nothing  to  do. 

I.  Political  conditions  have  changed  the  aspects  of  religious 
effort  in  the  island.  Though  formerly  the  great  field  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  the  French  occupation  in  1895 
resulted  in  greater  loss  to  that  society  than  to  any  other.  Pro- 
fessor Warneck  says  concerning  the  French  aggression  and  its 
effect  on  the  various  missions :  "  This  occupation  gave  the 
Jesuits,  who  since  the  end  of  the  fifties  had  been  forcing  their 
way  into  the  country,  the  opportunity  they  desired  of  turning 
the  hatred  felt  by  the  fanatical  French  colonial  politicians 
towards  the  British  to  account,  in  order  to  procure  by  skilful 
intrigue  the  systematic  oppression  of  the  evangelical  missions. 
Under   the   watchword,    *  French   is   equivalent   to    Catholic,* 


486  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

the  religious  liberty  which  was  proclaimed  with  so  much  dis- 
play of  rhetoric  has  been  set  at  defiance.  Evangelical  Chris- 
tians and  native  pastors  have  been  suspected  as  rebels,  impris- 
oned and  put  to  death ;  many  evangelical  churches  and  chapels 
have  been  confiscated ;  and  by  the  violent  introduction  of 
French,  first  as  the  language  of  instruction,  and  afterwards  as 
only  the  chief  matter  of  instruction,  many  evangelical  schools 
have  been  ruined,  not  to  speak  of  the  numerous  conversions 
wrought  by  violence  and  cunning  among  the  terrorized  people. 
In  this  critical  situation  the  Paris  Missionary  Society,  with 
brave  determination  and  brotherly  self-sacrifice,  has  come  to 
the  aid  of  its  hard-pressed  Madagascar  co-religionists  by  send- 
ing out  French  pastors  and  teachers ;  and  it  has  succeeded, 
chiefly  through  two  deputations,  first  Professor  Kriiger  and 
then  Director  Boegner,  not  only  in  checking  the  persecution 
of  the  Protestants,  but  also  in  procuring  for  the  non-French 
evangelical  societies  the  same  missionary  liberty  which  it  de- 
sired for  itself.  Along  with  1,200  schools,  with  about  62,000 
scholars,  the  Paris  Society  has  taken  over  a  large  number  of 
the  former  congregations  of  the  English  Independents  in  the 
provinces  of  Imerina  and  Betsileo,  about  half  of  the  field  they 
formerly  occupied.  .  .  .  While  the  work  of  the  Anglicans 
and  of  the  Quakers  has  suffered  only  a  little  from  the  violent 
counter-mission  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  great  colonial-political 
storm,  and  that  of  the  Norwegians  almost  none  at  all,  .  .  . 
the  congregations  of  the  London  Society  have  been  decimated 
in  a  manner  that  is  simply  startling,  and  the  Court  Church 
seems  to  have  almost  wholly  disappeared."  While  Professor 
Warneck  holds  that  this  great  loss  is  largely  due  to  "  the  ma- 
lign influence  of  its  independent  doctrine,"  and  its  "  superficial 
missionary  work,"  he  fails  to  give  due  weight  to  the  animosity 
that  the  French  Government  felt  for  this  most  influential  of 
the  missionary  societies.  Moreover,  the  mass  movement  that 
affected  this  Society  more  than  all  others,  was  against  the  pro- 
tests of  its  missionaries  for  the  very  reason  that  it  was  likely 
to  prove  superficial.     What  was  done  by  natives  contrary  to 


MADAGASCAR   AND    OTHER    AFRICAN    ISLANDS         487 

the  desires  of  the  missionaries  should  not  be  charged  against 
their  Society. 

2.  Relieving  Factors.  —  The  "  Norsk  Missionstidende  " 
stated  in  an  issue  of  1900  that  a  considerable  alteration  had 
taken  place  in  the  educational  work,  "  the  Government  having 
first  given  up  its  unreasonable  demand  for  French  in  all  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  then  having  decided  to  give  up  compul- 
sory attendance.  The  future  alone  will  show  how  this  latter 
alteration  will  work.  The  missionaries  are  not  without  fear 
that  it  may  have  injurious  consequences.  They  fear  that  their 
teachers  will  be  more  and  more  burdened  with  military  service 
and  forced  labor,  when  they  are  relieved  of  the  school  tasks  on 
which  the  Government  set  such  store  previously.  It  has  now 
become  possible  to  obtain  the  freehold  of  the  mission  stations 
which,  under  the  Hova  Government,  could  only  be  built  on 
rented  land,  as  no  foreigner  was  allowed  to  buy  land."  This 
advantage  is  a  slight  compensation  for  other  disabilities  aris- 
ing from  French  occupation.  Rev.  W.  E.  Cousins,  writing 
within  a  year  of  English  missions  there,  says :  "  The  strong 
anti-English  feeling  shown  by  many  of  the  French  officials 
seems  to  be  passing  away,  and  from  some  of  them  the  mission- 
aries receive  friendly  recognition  and  help.  It  has  become  clear 
to  them  that  the  English  missionaries  are  not  the  political 
agents  they  were  supposed  to  be,  and  that  their  presence  and 
work  tend  to  promote  order  and  quiet  among  the  people.  Un- 
doubtedly the  French  conquest  has  brought  with  it  many 
things  that  are  good  for  the  people,  especially  as  regards  the 
material  resources  of  the  country  and  the  general  administra- 
tion of  the  Government."  In  another  paragraph  he  quotes  the 
following  from  a  recent  Madagascar  letter :  "  The  gigantic  and 
unscrupulous  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  to  destroy  Protestantism 
have  resulted  in  a  magnificent  failure.  The  country  people 
tell  me  that  their  converts  are  leaving  them  just  now  in  crowds, 
and  that  the  numerous  huge  churches  built  in  the  hope  of  get- 
ting the  whole  population  stand  empty." 

3.  The  societies  working  in  Madagascar  and  the  number 


488  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  stations  occupied  are  as  follows :  Friends'  Foreign  Mission 
Association,  5  stations;  Paris  Society,  12  stations;  London 
Missionary  Society,  14  stations ;  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel,  21  stations;  Norwegian  Missionary  Society,  23 
stations.  Lutherans  of  the-  United  States  are  likewise  rep- 
resented in  Madagascar ;  the  United  Norwegian  Lutheran 
Church  has  3  stations,  and  the  Lutheran  Board  of  Missions,  5 
stations. 

4.  The  work  has  varied  somewhat  owing  to  the  attitude  of 
the  Government.  Education  had  previously  been  almost  en- 
tirely in  the  hands  of  Protestants.  With  the  new  regime  the 
official  regulations  already  mentioned  made  it  seem  wise  for 
the  London  Missionary  Society  to  place  its  schools  in  the  hands 
of  the  Paris  Evangelical  Society.  That  organization,  through 
its  Director,  M.  Boegner,  was  largely  instrumental  in  secur- 
ing the  present  laws  which  grant  to  all  religions  and  national- 
ities the  same  rights  of  education  and  the  same  grants-in-aid, 
especially  in  the  case  of  agricultural  and  technical  schools. 
Recently  the  Paris  Society  has  relinquished  in  favor  of  the 
London  missionaries  much  of  the  educational  work  entrusted 
to  them.  Though  the  Jesuits  had  previously  paid  much  at- 
tention to  French  in  their  schools  while  Protestants  made  use 
of  Malagasy,  already  Protestant  students  are  securing  more 
than  half  of  the  requisite  certificates  of  proficiency  in  French. 
The  colleges  of  the  London  Society  and  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  are  in  excellent  condition,  barring 
the  buildings  of  the  former ;  while  the  French  and  Norwegian 
missionaries  are  likewise  doing  praiseworthy  normal  and  other 
higher  educational  work. 

5.  Evangelistic  effort  is  emphasized  in  all  missions.  Recent 
reports  speak  of  the  growing  importance  and  value  of  Sunday- 
schools  and  Christian  Endeavor  Societies.  The  young  people 
of  the  Church  are  at  once  being  better  instructed  in  Bible  truth 
than  during  the  troublous  period  following  the  French  occu- 
pation, and  at  the  same  time  are  being  helped  in  the  effort 
to  evangelize  their  neighbors.    Rev.  L.  Rostvig,  Superintend- 


MADAGASCAR   AND    OTHER    AFRICAN    ISLANDS         489 

ent  of  the  Norwegian  Society,  whose  "  work  is  the  most  soHd 
and  the  most  hopeful  in  Madagascar,"  states  that  the  chief  dif- 
ficulties met  with  in  evangeHstic  effort  are  the  prevalent  ten- 
dency to  lawlessness  outside  large  towns,  mendacity,  lascivious- 
ness  and  cruelty.  The  popular  belief  that  the  Almighty  is  the 
cause  of  evil  and  that  their  ancestors  are  —  some  of  them  — 
demi-gods,  and  have  power  to  bless  their  descendants,  are  other 
obstacles  to  be  overcome.  Yet  their  practice  of  sacrificing  to 
God,  and  the  dead,  who  are  considered  intercessors  between 
God  and  the  people,  and  their  faith  in  a  Creator  and  Governor 
of  the  Universe  are  all  helpful  ideas  in  evangelistic  addresses 
and  private  interviews.  Many  of  the  slave  class,  who  at  a 
single  stroke  of  the  pen  were  set  free  by  France  in  1896,  have 
left  the  capital  and  other  large  towns  where  it  was  possible  to 
hear  the  gospel,  and  have  returned  to  distant  homes,  in  some 
cases  to  forget  the  little  that  they  formerly  knew,  and  in  others 
to  proclaim  it  to  their  previously  unreached  neighbors.  Medi- 
cine is  as  much  needed  as  before  the  French  entrance,  and  other 
efforts  of  the  missionaries  are  again  proceeding  almost  as  satis- 
factorily as  before  the  interruption  of  work. 

6.  Summarizing  the  gain,  Mr.  Cousins  said  at  the  Ecumeni- 
cal Conference  of  1900:  "  So  far  from  lessening  the  number  of 
workers  in  the  various  Protestant  missions,  the  troubles  of  re- 
cent years  have  brought  new  workers  into  the  field.  The  Nor- 
wegian Mission  is  stronger  than  ever.  And  the  Evangelical 
Society  of  Paris  has  been  drawn  to  the  work  and  is  now  repre- 
sented by  about  thirty  workers.  The  trials  of  the  native  Prot- 
estant churches,  and  especially  the  murder  of  the  two  French 
missionaries,  Escande  and  Mivault,  deeply  stirred  the  hearts 
of  French  Protestants,  and  seemed  to  them  a  very  call  from 
God  to  undertake  for  Him  in  their  new  colony.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  has  recently  sent  out  three  young  men 
possessing  a  knowledge  of  the  French  language,  and  has  three 
or  four  others  in  the  course  of  preparation.  There  are  eighty 
or  ninety  male  Protestant  missionaries  and  about  thirty  lady 
missionaries  —  not    including  the  wives  of    the  missionaries; 


490  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

that  is  to  say,  we  have  from  120  to  150  European  workers,  a 
larger  number  than  we  have  ever  had  in  the  past.  BeHeve  me, 
Protestantism  is  not  dead  in  Madagascar,  nor  is  it  dying.  It 
shows  many  unmistakable  signs  of  life  and  activity;  and  we 
believe  that,  although  it  will  possibly  in  future  years  be  the  re- 
ligion of  a  minority  only,  it  still  has  an  important  function 
to  discharge  in  the  development  of  the  life  of  the  people." 

III.  Mauritius  and  the  Seychelles.  —  The  societies 
laboring  here  are  both  British.  The  first  to  enter  the  field 
was  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  which  was 
later  followed  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society. 

1.  Both  societies  are  practically  confining  their  efforts  to  the 
immigrants  from  India,  who  have  come  hither  to  work  on  the 
sugar  plantations.  As  they  constitute  about  two-thirds  of  the 
population,  the  field  is  large  enough  for  the  force  employed, 
considering  the  difficulties  encountered.  Both  organizations 
necessarily  make  much  use  of  natives  of  India  and  of  other 
workers  who  have  learned  the  languages  of  that  Empire.  While 
some  effort  has  been  made  to  reach  the  Chinese  resident  in  the 
island,  they  are  so  little  affected  by  Christianity  that  they  do 
not  observe  Sunday,  and  hence  have  been  dropped  from  the 
Church  Missionary  Society's  rolls. 

2.  "  Difficult  work  under  exceptionally  difficult  circum- 
stances "  seems  to  be  a  fair  characterization  of  the  missionary 
enterprise  in  Mauritius.  The  1901  Report  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  makes  this  statement  concerning  the  obstacles 
encountered :  "  The  language  difficulties  are  always  serious. 
The  way  in  which  the  Christians  who  look  to  the  Society  or  to 
the  Church  Council  for  pastoral  help  are  scattered  over  the 
island  in  units  and  families  is  another  difficulty.  The  continual 
flux  of  the  members  of  the  congregations  is  perhaps  less  a  dif- 
ficulty attaching  to  the  work  than  a  condition  that  militates 
against  tangible  results,  but  it  is  none  the  less  apt  to  be  a 
source  of  discouragement  to  the  workers.  The  low  standard 
of  social  morality  which  obtains  amongst  the  immigrant  popu- 
lation is  undoubtedly  an  obstacle,  and  one  which,  even  were 


MADAGASCAR    AND    OTHER    AFRICAN    ISLANDS         49 1 

Other  conditions  more  favorable,  would  be  liable  to  affect  seri- 
ously for  evil  the  little  scattered  community  of  Christians." 
The  language  difficulty  in  some  cases  is  the  most  serious  one 
of  all  those  named.  Thus  Rev.  I.  F.  Chorley  was  obliged  to 
instruct  his  thirty-two  candidates  for  confirmation  in  five  lan- 
guages—  English,  French,  Creole,  Tamil  and  Hindi.  The 
same  problem  is  of  course  present  in  the  church  service  and  in 
Sunday-school  work, 

3.  Thankfulness  is  felt  for  the  fruitage  granted  in  the  midst 
of  such  discouragement.  Thus  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
has  baptized  over  5,000  in  the  course  of  its  work,  the  majority 
of  whom  have  returned  to  India  bearing  with  them  the  new 
religion,  and  thus  becoming  a  nucleus  for  future  communities 
of  Christians  in  their  fatherland.  The  labors  of  missionary 
women  have  been  especially  encouraging,  and  Christian  song 
has  been  a  lever  of  great  value  in  raising  the  low  spiritual  life 
to  a  higher  plane. 

4.  The  Seychelles  are  at  present  occupied  only  by  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel ;  though  occasional 
help  is  derived  from  representatives  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  which  gave  up  its  regular  work  there  in  1894.  The 
people  are  mainly  of  African  descent  and,  with  the  exception  of 
about  2,500  adherents  of  the  Church  of  England,  are  nearly  all 
Roman  Catholics.  That  Communion  is  vigorously  prosecuting 
the  work  with  a  force  of  sixteen  priests,  ten  freres  engaged  in 
educational  work  and  fifty  Sisters  of  Charity,  all  presided 
over  by  a  bishop.  The  Church  of  England  has  never  had  more 
than  three  clergymen  laboring  there.  Thus  in  Mauritius  and 
the  Seychelles,  though  dependencies  of  Great  Britain,  Cathol- 
icism is  making  very  rapid  strides,  while  Protestant  missions 
are  barely  holding  their  own.  In  Mauritius  the  Romanists 
have  such  influence  with  the  Government  that  Protestant 
schools  can  hardly  be  carried  on. 

Archdeacon  Buswell  in  his  report  for  1900  speaks  of  the 
opportunity  that  he  had  of  frequent  interviews  with  political 
prisoners  from    Western    Africa,  and  especially  with    King 


492  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Prempeh  of  Ashanti.    The  result  was  that  this  deposed  poten- 
tate was  in  the  ranks  of  the  almost  persuaded. 

IV.  The  Atlantic  Groups.  —  Both  the  Madeira  and  Cape 
Verde  Islands  are  comparatively  new  mission  fields,  and  labors 
there  are  very  much  like  those  of  Protestant  missionaries  in 
Portugal,  the  mother  country. 

1.  Societies.- — The  Methodist  Board,  North,  the  American 
Seaman's  Friend  Society,  the  Gospel  Mission  to  Madeira,  and 
the  American  Advent  Mission  Society  are  the  organizations 
engaged  in  the  work.  The  first  of  these  makes  Madeira  the 
episcopal  residence  of  Bishop  Hartzell,  in  charge  of  their, 
work  in  Africa.  Funchal  was  occupied  by  this  Board  in 
1896,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  in  1901,  though  many  years 
of  faithful  service  on  the  part  of  Rev.  W.  G.  Smart  and 
his  associates  had  preceded  the  date  above  mentioned.  The 
recent  inception  of  the  work  in  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  is  a 
good  illustration  of  the  influence  of  Christian  fellowship  upon 
men  of  other  nationalities.  Three  years  since  some  Christian 
Portuguese  went  to  the  islands  and  began  Methodist  meetings 
there,  thus  preparing  the  way  and  creating  a  demand  for  Rev. 
G.  P.  Nind,  who  has  recently  sailed  to  fill  his  appointment. 
The  Gospel  Mission  to  Madeira  was  also  established  in  1896. 
The  Seamen's  Friend  Society  is  engaged  in  the  peculiar  work 
of  organizations  of  that  character. 

2.  Gross  ignorance,  both  intellectual  and  moral,  is  as  widely 
prevalent  as  in  many  heathen  lands.  Only  about  five  per  cent, 
of  the  Madeira  islanders  are  able  to  read  and  write,  and  they 
are  all  poor.  While  Government  restrictions  are  hampering, 
and  though  riots  have  occurred,  seriously  endangering  the  mis- 
sionaries, the  people  are  willing,  and  often  glad,  to  hear  the 
gospel.  The  workers  plead  for  medical  effort  as  being  likely 
to  greatly  aid  in  the  enterprise. 


XIX 

FIELDS    PRACTICALLY   UNOCCUPIED 

PART  I.— GENERAL 

When  one  considers  the  exceedingly  small  ratio  that  mis- 
sionaries and  native  Christians  bear  to  the  entire  population  of 
even  the  most  fully  occupied  fields,  all  mission  lands  seem  to 
fall  within  the  above  category.  In  the  present  chapter  those 
important  populations  with  practically  no  opportunities  to  hear 
the  Gospel  as  it  is  taught  in  evangelical  churches,  will  be  de- 
scribed, as  also  the  beginnings  of  mission  work  among  those 
peoples. 

I.  Unoccupied  Districts  in  Fields  Already  Partly 
Evangelized.  —  i.  Following  the  order  of  the  population  of 
large  districts  not  yet  reached,  and  placing  the  largest  number 
first,  China  is  the  country  that  stands  foremost.  While  the 
vermilion-marked  stations  on  the  China  map  seem  compara- 
tively near  each  other,  two  facts  should  be  remembered.  One 
is  that  China  is  printed  on  a  small  scale,  and  hence  districts 
seemingly  small  are  really  large.  The  other  consideration  lies 
in  the  fact  that  density  of  population  is  characteristic  of  that 
Empire,  and  hence  apparently  small  regions  yet  untouched 
contain  larger  populations  than  are  found  in  all  South  Amer- 
ica. A  more  careful  study  of  the  China  map  will  show  that 
the  largest  districts  yet  unoccupied,  though  not  the  most 
densely  peopled,  are  in  general  the  northwestern,  southwestern, 
southern  and  southern  central  sections  of  the  Empire.  The 
littoral  provinces,  the.  Imperial  province  and  that  west  of  it, 
Shan-si,  and  portions  of  the  Yang-tsze  Valley,  are  best  pro- 
493 


494  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

vided  with  missionaries ;  yet  it  is  possible  that  a  total  popula- 
tion as  great  as  that  of  all  Africa  are  not  so  situated  that  they 
can  at  present  hear  the  gospel,  either  being  entirely  ignorant 
of  it,  or  not  caring  sufficiently  about  the  matter  to  travel  two 
or  three  days'  journey  in  order  to  reach  the  missionary.  Here, 
as  in  most  missionary  countries,  except  India  and  Japan,  acces- 
sibility to  religious  influence,  so  far  as  territory  is  concerned, 
should  be  reckoned  on  an  average  of  a  day  for  each  twenty- 
five  miles  distance  from  a  mission  station.  Previous  to  the 
massacre  of  missionaries,  in  1900,  the  province  of  Shan-si  was 
the  best  provided  with  workers,  and  yet  in  1898  it  had  but  one 
station  to  1,285  square  miles.  This  is  the  same  as  if  Rhode 
Island  contained  but  one  church,  whose  pastor,  with  possibly 
one  or  two  assistants,  were  responsible  for  the  evangelization 
of  the  entire  State,  and  a  considerable  fringe  of  Connecticut 
besides.  In  1898  the  province  of  Kan-su  had  but  one  station  to 
10,454  square  miles;  Kwei-chau,  one  to  12,911  square  miles; 
Yun-nan,  one  to  17,995  square  miles;  Kwang-si,  one  to  19,562 
square  miles.  This  is  an  indication  of  the  amount  of  unoccu- 
pied territory  in  the  most  populous  Empire  of  the  world. 

2.  India  is  but  little  behind  China  in  the  many  millions  who 
are  practically  beyond  the  reach  of  the  missionary.  Mr.  Wilder 
and  a  number  of  other  workers  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
situation  there  in  1896.  It  should  be  remembered  in  connection 
with  the  facts  quoted  below  that  in  India,  which  is  a  smaller 
country  and  is  partially  provided  with  railways,  great  un- 
evangelized  populations  can  more  readily  reach  the  missionary 
if  so  inclined.  As  an  offset  to  this,  however,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  fact  that  caste  regulations  and  the  peculiar  village 
community  life  of  that  Empire  would  be  an  obstacle  to  travel- 
ing far  to  reach  a  mission  station.  A  few  illustrations  will 
show  how  much  need  for  workers  there  is  in  many  India  fields. 
Though  Madras  Presidency  is  the  best  worked  one  in  the  Em- 
pire, with  one  Christian  to  forty  non-Christians  in  1891,  there 
is  in  the  native  State  of  Mysore  but  one  missionary  to  a  quar- 
ter of  a  million,  while  in  the  Telugu  portion  of  the  Nizam's 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  495 

dominions  there  is  but  one  to  half  a  million.  In  the  Belgium 
district  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  there  is  one  missionary  to 
288,000,  while  in  Gujarat  the  proportion  is  one  to  one  million. 
In  the  Central  provinces,  Chanda,  with  an  area  of  10,749  square 
miles  and  2,700  villages,  inhabited  by  over  690,000,  there  is  no 
missionary;  and  Hoshangabad  has  a  population  of  three  mil- 
lion, wholly  untouched  by  missionary  effort.  In  the  densely 
populated  Presidency  of  Bengal,  Faridpur  has  but  one  mission- 
ary to  half  a  million,  and  Decca  one  to  2,204,000.  Fatehpur, 
in  the  Northwest  provinces,  has  but  one  man  and  his  wife  min- 
istering to  750,000.  The  Province  of  Rajputana  averages  one 
missionary  to  half  a  million,  and  in  the  Punjab,  Sialkot  has 
one  missionary  to  186,000.  When  these  figures  are  compared 
with  the  populations  in  sparsely  settled  countries  that  are  com- 
paratively well  provided  with  missionaries,  one  realizes  how 
proportionately  greater  the  responsibility  of  the  Church  is  for 
this  vast  Empire  with  its  teeming  millions. 

3.  The  great  continent  of  Africa  comes  next  in  the  list. 
While  the  vast  stretches  of  desert  land  in  the  northern  half 
of  the  continent  need  not  be  regarded,  notwithstanding  the  con- 
siderable population  of  its  oases,  there  is  one  country  which 
ought  to  make  its  special  appeal  to  the  Christian.  The  great 
central  and  thickly  peopled  Sudan,  described  in  the  chapter  on 
the  Dark  Continent,  is  one  of  the  most  needy  mission  fields  in 
the  world,  and  yet  only  the  merest  beginnings  have  been  made. 
Here  we  have  a  population  numbering  two-thirds  that  of  the 
United  States,  who  cannot,  by  any  possibility,  reach  a  Prot- 
estant mission  station.  In  other  sections  of  Africa  there  are 
vast  regions  without  a  single  missionary  or  Christian. 

4.  In  South  America,  where  Catholicism  has  permeated  a 
good  part  of  the  country,  there  is  more  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tian truth,  albeit  the  truth  emphasized  is  so  over-shadowed  by 
corruption  that  it  has  little  power  to  change  the  life.  That 
portion  of  its  inhabitants  which  is  most  neglected  is  found 
among  the  more  than  6,000,000  Indians,  and  these  constitute 
sixteen  out  of  every  hundred  inhabitants.    The  largely  unex- 


49^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

plored  interior  one  can  say  little  about;  but  in  Peru,  where 
there  are  at  least  two  and  a  half  million  Indians,  and  in  Bolivia, 
with  possibly  one  million  —  the  large  majority  of  them  de- 
scendants of  the  continent's  most  cultivated  aboriginal  race, 
the  Incas  —  there  is  a  large  field  for  missionary  effort  so  soon 
as  Peru  grants  religious  freedom  to  all,  and  Bolivia  makes  this 
nominal  freedom  so  in  reality. 

There  are  other  considerable  populations  in  lands  where  a 
few  missionaries  are  working  that  ought  to  be  considered  by  all 
friends  of  missions.  Thus  in  Persia  there  are  extensive  dis- 
tricts which  have  never  been  visited,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
Mongolia,  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

II.  Lands  in  which  Missionary  Work  has  Barely 
Begun.  —  i,  Siberia,  though  belonging  to  Russia,  and  hence 
a  land  where  the  Greek  Church  nominally  rules,  has,  notwith- 
standing, a  population  mainly  pagan.  This  vast  territory 
with  an  area  of  nearly  5,000,000  square  miles,  slopes  wholly 
toward  the  north,  and  is  furrowed  by  immense  but  useless 
rivers,  and  embarrassed  by  a  rigorous  climate.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  extent  of  territory,  larger  by  far  than  that  of  all  Europe 
and  equal  to  nearly  forty  United  Kingdoms,  it  has  about  the 
same  number  of  inhabitants  as  dwell  in  the  City  of  London,  as 
they  do  not  much  exceed  5,700,000,  thus  giving  each  inhabi- 
tant more  than  a  square  mile  of  territory. 

The  indigenous  population  of  Siberia  with  which  only  we 
are  concerned,  consists  of  Ugrian  races,  the  Ostyaks,  Voguls 
and  Samoyedes ;  of  Turkish  stocks,  the  most  numerous  of 
which  are  the  Yakuts,  together  with  some  fifteen  different 
stems  of  Tatars;  the  Mongol  stock,  represented  by  the  Bu- 
ryats ;  the  Kalmucks,  the  Tunguses  and  the  Hyperborean  stock, 
and  others  yet  undetermined  as  to  origin.  Much  of  this  coun- 
try is  thickly  clothed  with  forests,  while  in  West  Siberia,  in 
the  northern  portion,  lies  an  immense  lowland  only  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  sea.  The  southwestern  section  of  it  is  cov- 
ered with  a  thick  layer  of  black  earth  extending  over  a  terri- 
tory as  large  as  Great  Britain,  and  nourishing  a  luxuriant  grass 


FIELDS   PRACTICALLY   UNOCCUPIED  497 

vegetation,  which  is  even  now  the  granary  of  Siberia  and  the 
source  of  exportation.  Nearly  one-third  of  Siberia's  popula- 
tions is  gathered  on  those  prairies,  most  of  them  being  Russian 
immigrants  or  exiles.  That  section  of  the  population,  that  is 
perhaps  the  most  wretched,  inhabits  the  tundras  of  the  far 
North,  The  climate  here  is  terrible,  the  average  temperatures 
of  December  and  January  being  respectively  15°  and  35°  F. 
below  zero,  and  the  soil  being  frozen  to  a  great  depth.  Of 
trees  there  practically  are  none,  and  the  low  bushes  rising  only 
a  few  inches  above  the  ground  have  a  hard  struggle  for  ex- 
istence. Some  50,000  human  beings  wander  over  these  inhos- 
pitable tracts  with  their  reindeer  and  dogs.  The  native  inhab- 
itants along  the  southern  borders  are  quite  largely  nomadic 
and  do  not  greatly  differ  in  life  and  habits  from  the  Mongols. 
Aside  from  the  officially  prevalent  Greek  or  Orthodox  re- 
ligion, and  some  non-conforming  sects  among  the  European 
immigrants,  there  are  many  Turkish  tribes  holding  the  Mo- 
hammedan faith  with  sufficient  missionary  zeal  to  win  new 
converts.  The  Buriats  profess  Buddhism,  while  most  of  the 
Ugrian  tribes  and  the  Hyperboreans  are  Shamanists.  Among 
all  these  native  races  Christianity  in  its  Greek  form  is  making 
little  progress.  "  Even  where  Christianity  has  long  been  in- 
troduced, as  among  the  Samoyedes  and  Lamouts,  sun  and 
fire  worship  is  the  toughest  survival  of  paganism.  The  Mon- 
gol Shamans  are  sacrificing  to  the  sun  when  they  cast  milk  into 
the  air ;  the  Chukchis  and  Tunguses  pray  to  it.  The  Samoyedes 
call  the  sun  the  watcher  and  guardian  of  their  herds,"  Through 
all  the  Hyperborean  tribes  the  curious  veneration  of  the  bear 
has  great  power  over  the  people.  "  He  takes  rank  directly 
next  to  the  sky  and  the  queen  of  the  under-world  as  a  divine 
being,  particularly  as  the  lord  of  all  spirits,  a  god  endowed 
with  power  and  wisdom  hidden  under  the  bear's  skin."  Profes- 
sor Ratzel  thus  describes  the  high  priest  of  Shamanism :  "  The 
Shaman's  cap  and  clothes  are  hung  full  of  fetishes;  particu- 
larly a  long  strap  reaching  from  the  back  of  his  cap  to  the 
ground.     For  incantations  he  puts  on  a  robe  made  of  skins 


49§  Geography  of  Protestant  missions 

stitched  together  and  adorned  with  flaps,  thongs  and  ap- 
pendages, representing  all  manner  of  beasts.  It  is  reserved 
to  him  to  take  in  his  hands  without  hurting  himself  objects 
calculated  to  excite  horror,  just  as  the  poets  of  the  Sagas  put 
into  the  hands  of  witches  remedies  for  which  most  people  feel 
disgust  —  as  portions  of  dead  men,  spiders  and  other  vermin, 
all  obtained  and  employed  in  secret  or  during  the  night." 

In  spite  of  the  forms  of  religion  the  character  of  most  of  these 
races  is  calculated  to  awaken  compassion.  The  faults  that  are 
ruining  the  Hyperboreans  are  brandy-drinking,  gambling 
and  licentiousness.  "  Of  all  Christian  teaching,  that  relating  to 
marriage  and  chastity  has  had  the  least  influence  on  the  lives 
of  converted  Samoyedes,  Tunguses  and  others."  Along  with 
these  weaknesses  there  are  some  traits  that  commend  them- 
selves, considering  the  semi-savage  character  of  the  people. 
Thus  they  are  tolerably  honest ;  some  of  them  rank  as  French- 
men in  liveliness  and  politeness ;  most  of  them  are  very  brave ; 
and  in  the  northern  part  of  Siberia  where  the  struggle  with  the 
forces  of  nature  has  been  keen,  they  are  chivalrous  and  likewise 
quick  to  avenge  an  insult.  Other  characteristics  are  anything 
but  favorable,  among  which  are  the  burial  alive  of  widows  or 
motherless  children,  the  exposure  of  helpless  old  people  who 
have  in  some  instances  been  eaten  by  their  own  children,  and 
the  awful  cruelty  of  men  who  slay  in  revenge  their  enemy. 

2.  Passing  southward  from  Siberia  we  reach  the  tablelands 
of  Central  Asia.  The  region  of  which  we  here  speak  is  com- 
monly known  as  Turkistan,  and  includes  the  Chinese  section 
called  Hsin-chiang,  a  province  of  that  Empire.  While  its  name 
indicates  that  it  is  "  The  Country  of  the  Turks,"  the  Persians 
call  it  Turan.  It  extends  from  the  Caspian  Sea  eastward  to 
the  Chinese  province  of  Kan-su.  The  western  section  is  hilly 
and  well  watered  in  its  higher  portions,  while  in  the  plains  are 
deserts  of  loose,  shifting  sand  interspersed  with  oases.  The 
races  inhabiting  Western  Turkistan  are  Turkish  in  the  main, 
though  the  Persians  have  penetrated  to  this  region  in  some 
numbers.    Many  of  the  tribes  are  nomadic  and  predatory,  and 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  499 

hence  exceedingly  hard  to  reach.  Lying  between  this  section 
and  Persia  is  a  long  and  fertile  tract  running  from  the  south- 
east of  the  Caspian  to  Herat,  "  the  key  of  India,"  which  is  a 
strip  of  great  international  interest. 

Eastern  Turkistan,  or  Hsin-chiang,  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  the  highlands  of  Tibet.  In  the  east  it  sinks  into  the  Desert 
of  Gobi.  The  Lob-nor,  a  series  of  lakes  and  marshes  in  the 
center  of  the  region,  is  very  desolate  and  unattractive.  Though 
large  areas  are  unproductive,  there  are  numerous  villages  and 
towns,  and  some  beginnings  of  missionary  work  have  been  par- 
tially successful.  Though  the  inhabitants  of  the  largest  cen- 
ters speak  Turkish,  they  are  of  Persian  descent.  Except  some 
of  the  Chinese,  this  population  is  mainly  Mohammedan. 

3.  Still  journeying  southward  one  reaches  the  highest  coun- 
try of  the  world,  Tibet,  which  is  nominally  a  dependency  of 
China.  Its  territory  equals  that  of  the  New  England  and  Mid- 
dle States  more  than  four  times  over,  and  has  a  population  of 
about  6,000,000.  Its  table-lands  vary  in  height  from  10,000  to 
17,000  feet,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  their  average  height 
is  that  of  Mont  Blanc  —  a  possible  exaggeration.  Its  five  prov- 
inces are  equal  in  extent  to  European  States.  The  northeast- 
ern province  of  Tsaidam  has  cold  and  scanty  pastures,  fre- 
quented by  the  nomadic  Tanguts.  A  second  province,  Katchi, 
is  likewise  a  great  northern  plain  very  little  known.  In  this 
province  are  the  gold  fields  of  Thok-Jalung,  one  of  the  highest 
inhabited  spots  on  the  globe.  East  Nari  is  an  elevated  Hima- 
layan section,  where  lie  the  sources  of  the  Indus  and  Sanpo. 
This  is  a  country  of  pastures  interspersed  with  a  few  cultivated 
tracts,  and  it  contains  a  lake  sacred  to  Tibetans  and  Hindus 
lying  15,000  feet  above  the  sea.  West  Nari,  or  Little  Tibet, 
is  best  known  to  readers  of  missionary  literature,  and  consists 
of  Ladakh  and  Balti,  that  are  at  present  dependencies  of  the 
Indian  Empire  through  Kashmir.  A  fifth  region,  known  as 
Yu-tsang,  is  the  most  populous  and  important  section  of  Tibet  ; 
and  the  chief  connection  with  the  outside  world  is  through 
the  Sanpo,  down  which  hide-covered  boats  carry  the  produce 


500  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  this  upland  country.  It  contains  the  sacred  capital  of  the 
Tibetan  world,  Lhasa.  The  sixth  and  last  province  is  that  of 
Kham.  Through  this  district  great  roads  run,  one  connecting 
Lhasa  with  Ta-chien-lu  the  emporium  of  Chinese  trade  with 
Tibet,  and  another  being  the  shortest  route  to  China,  and  an 
official  one. 

The  northern  and  western  table-lands  are  treeless  and  abound 
in  innumerable  herds  of  animals.  The  pastures  of  the  southern 
plateaux  supply  food  to  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  large  nomad 
population.  Agriculture  and  gardening  are  difficult  arts  in 
Tibet,  and  the  irrigation  and  terrace  cultivation  necessary  to 
secure  even  scanty  crops,  are  supposed  to  have  sharpened  the 
intelligence  of  peasants  and  made  them  strong  and  laborious. 
Their  chief  industrial  occupation  is  the  preparation  of  woolen 
cloth.  They  are  active  traders,  and  large  caravans  in  which 
yaks  and  sheep  are  the  beasts  of  burden,  are  constantly  travers- 
ing the  country  on  their  way  to  the  great  fairs  in  Tibet  and  to 
the  entrepots  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  Tibetans  are 
Mongolian  in  race,  but  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Burmese 
than  to  the  Mongols  proper.  Though  intelligent,  they  are 
without  initiative.  "  Different  views  have  been  taken  of  their 
moral  character,  but  on  the  whole  they  seem  to  be  kindly  and 
truthful.  They  are  fond  of  music  and  dancing."  Archaic 
customs,   such  as  polyandry,   are  common. 

As  to  religion,  the  Tibetans  are  of  two  creeds.  One  is  the 
Bon-Pa  creed,  a  development  of  Mongol  Shamanism,  and  held 
by  the  natives.  The  other  is  the  well-known  form  of  Buddhism, 
known  as  Lamaism.  This  is  imported  and  is  all-pervasive 
"  The  Tibetan" clergy  are  very  numerous,  there  being,  it  is  esti- 
mated, one  monk  for  every  family.  Monasteries  and  convents 
are  everywhere  in  Tibet.  The  performance  of  elaborate  cere- 
mony is  held  to  be  more  important  than  good  works,  and  can 
only  be  carried  out  with  the  aid  of  the  clergy,  who  are  said  to 
be  avaricious,  idle  and  dissolute."  Thousands  of  Buddhists 
go  annually  on  pilgrimages  to  Lhasa  with  the  same  enthusiasm 
as  the  Mohammedans  journey  to  Mecca.     "  From  the  fruitful 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  5OI 

lowlands  of  China,  from  the  interminable  deserts  of  Mongolia, 
from  the  wild  gorges  of  the  Himalaya  and  Kuenlun,  the 
streams  of  pilgrims  flow.  They  make  offerings  in  hundreds  of 
thousands ;  even  the  poor  bring  their  mite.  The  palace  of  the 
Dalai-Lama  to  the  north  of  Lhasa,  on  a  stony  hill  rising  from 
the  swampy  valley  bottom,  shows  temple  upon  temple  from  the; 
slope  of  the  hill  to  the  summit,  where  stands  the  gilded  palace 
of  the  great  divinity.  Portals  shaded  by  lofty  trees  lead  to 
four  hundred  stone  steps.  In  front  of  them  assemble  the  faith- 
ful in  festal  attire,  on  horses  with  many-colored  trappings. 
When  the  right  hand  of  the  Dalai-Lama  has  rested  in  bene- 
diction on  their  heads,  they  return  back  to  their  homes  and  in 
future  will  visit  only  a  reborn  Buddha  of  lower  rank."  This 
city  is  the  center  of  Northern  Buddhism  for  Mongolia  and 
Tibet,  and  has  been  visited  by  only  three  Europeans  two  of 
them  being  Catholic  Missionaries. 

4.  Afghanistan  (4,000,000  inhabitants)  and  Baluchistan 
(500,000  inhabitants),  lying  between  India  and  Persia,  are 
practically  closed  to  the  missionary  except  along  the  eastern 
border.  The  latter  country  is  included  within  the  political 
area  of  India,  being  a  protectorate  under  the  British  Govern- 
ment. 

( I )  Afghanistan  is  described  by  Sir  G.  R.  Robertson  as  "  a 
drab-colored  land,  one  of  the  waste  places  of  the  world.  Sand, 
bare  rocks,  sterile  hills  and  vast  snow-capped  mountain  ranges 
are  the  main  features  of  the  stern,  inhospitable  country ;  tender 
green  places,  fertile  irrigated  fields,  vineyards  and  orchards 
being  circumscribed  and  infrequent.  In  summer  it  is  hot  every- 
where. The  temperature  depends  upon  elevation,  not  upon 
latitude.  Stony,  treeless  slopes,  parched  soil  and  whirling  sand 
increase  the  dryness  of  the  harsh,  scorching  air.  Burnt  gray- 
brown,  the  naked  landscape  quivers  in  the  fierce  beams  of  the 
sun.  Winter  brings  frost,  snow  and  blustering  storms,  and 
in  many  places  dangerous  snow-hurricanes  occur;  Ghazni  is 
said  to  have  been  depopulated  twice  by  blizzards.  The  winter 
is  full  of  surprises.     One  moment  a  traveler  may  in  the  sun's 


502  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

glare  be  miserably  overheated,  the  next,  in  shadow,  he  is 
pierced  to  the  heart  by  the  chill  of  an  icy  wind.  Roads  are 
mostly  rough  and  hilly  or  ankle-deep  in  yielding  sand ;  they  are 
often  incredibly  tiring.  Food  is  scarce,  for  the  whole  country 
is  poor;  it  yields  grudgingly  bread  for  man  and  herbage  for 
animals." 

The  people  claim  descent  from  King  Saul ;  but  despite  faintly 
Jewish  features  and  some  analogous  customs,  their  Pushtu 
speech  betrays  an  Aryan  descent.  So  unkindly  is  the  soil 
that  weaklings  die  in  infancy,  leaving  only  strong  men  of 
great  stubbornness  and  a  bravery  that  is  only  equaled  by 
their  treacherous  character.  "  Luxury,  even  comfort,  to  them 
is  often  what  we  call  vice.  Ingenious  in  sensuality,  they  are 
intriguers  by  instinct ;  while  running  through  their  whole  char- 
acter, there  is  a  wonderful  arrogance,  vindictiveness  and 
cruelty.  Born  and  bred  amidst  an  unceasing  struggle  with 
nature  for  the  means  of  life,  they  live  hard  and  they  die  hard." 

In  religion  the  Afghans  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Sunnite 
sect.  While  they  are  somewhat  strict  and  bigoted,  they  are  not 
intolerant  of  any  creed  save  Christianity.  ''  Hatred  of  Chris- 
tians springs  less  from  questions  of  dogma  and  faith  than  be- 
cause the  blood  of  ancestors  and  tribesmen  cries  for  vengeance ; 
and  because  of  the  supposed  determination  of  British  Chris- 
tians to  enslave  the  Afghan  people  and  force  them  to  '  carry 
loads.'  British  rule  is  feared  as  a  wrought-iron  system  regu- 
lated by  an  inexorable  screw  called  law,  which  squeezes  free 
hillmen  into  the  pulp  of  which  slaves  are  made.  Regular  au- 
thority is  based  upon  the  dumb  terror  inspired  by  hideous  and 
dramatic  punishments.  An  Amir  of  Afghanistan  must  be  mer- 
ciless, and  his  people  must  believe  him  to  be  the  implacable 
enemy,  secret  or  declared,  of  the  Government  of  India." 

(2)  Baluchistan  is  much  like  its  northern  neighbor  in  tne 
character  of  its  territory.  Hundreds  of  square  miles  of  deserts 
swept  by  sandstorms  in  the  summer  and  bitterly  cold  in  the 
winter,  are  varied  by  bare  hills  and  treeless  valleys  in  the 
West ;  while  the  region  along  the  coast  is  a  rival  of  Aden  and 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  503 

upper  Sind  for  the  dubious  honor  of  being  the  hottest  place 
in  Asia.  Only  a  small  tract  along  the  India  border  and  in  the 
Northeast  is  sufficiently  well-watered  to  produce  much  grain  or 
fruit. 

Its  scattered  tribes  are  either  Aryan  Baluchis  or  the  unre- 
lated Brahuis.  The  latter  are  the  aborigines,  and  are  hospi- 
table and  generous.  The  Baluchis  are  "  a  hungry,  needy, 
greedy  people,"  who  are  mostly  nomads  and  form  the  bulk  of 
the  rural  population.  Like  the  Afghans,  both  of  these  races  are 
Sunnite  Mohammedans,  who  in  addition  to  the  Koranic  teach- 
ings, are  believers  in  a  mass  of  traditions,  and  are  almost  uni- 
versally polygamists. 

5.  Arabia,  or  in  native  phrase,  "  The  Island  of  the  Arab,"  is 
so  called  because,  in  addition  to  the  water  boundaries  on  three 
sides,  the  waste  of  sand  on  the  north  is  an  equally  impassable 
limit.  Its  great  area  is  often  forgotten;  as  a  matter  of  fact 
it  is  one-third  as  extensive  as  Europe,  and  is  larger  than  that 
portion  of  the  United  States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Ptolemy's  old  threefold  division  of  its  surface  still 
holds  good,  though  not  recognized  by  the  Arabs;  Arabia  Pe- 
traea,  "  the  stony  "  northwest  portion  with  the  Peninsula  of 
Sinai ;  Arabia  Felix,  "  Araby  the  Blest,"  lying  along  the  west 
and  south  coasts;  and  Arabia  Deserta,  all  the  rest  of  its  ex- 
tent, which  is  more  or  less  desert. 

Palgrave  thus  sums  up  most  of  what  has  been  learned  since 
Ptolemy's  time :  "  The  general  type  of  Arabia  is  that  of  a 
central  table-land  surrounded  by  a  desert  ring  sandy  to  the 
south,  west  and  east,  stony  to  the  north.  This  outlying  circle 
is  in  its  turn  girt  by  a  line  of  mountains  low  and  sterile  for  the 
most  part,  but  attaining  in  Yemen  and  Oman  considerable 
height,  breadth  and  fertility,  while  beyond  these  a  narrow  rim 
of  coast  is  bordered  by  the  sea.  The  surface  of  the  midmost 
table-land  equals  somewhat  less  than  one-half  the  peninsula; 
and  its  special  demarcations  are  much  affected,  nay  often  ab- 
solutely fixed,  by  the  windings  and  in-runnings  of  the  Nefud 
(sandy  desert).    If  to  these  central  highlands,  or  Nejd,  taking 


504  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

that  word  in  its  widest  sense,  we  add  whatever  spots  of  fer- 
tility belong  to  the  outer  circles,  we  shall  find  that  Arabia 
contains  about  two-thirds  of  cultivated  or  at  least  cultivable 
land,  with  a  remaining  third  of  irreclaimable  desert,  chiefly  on 
the  south."  Commenting  on  this  quotation,  Mr.  Zwemer  adds 
that  "  Arabia,  like  the  Arab,  has  a  rough,  frowning  exterior, 
but  a  warm,  hospitable  heart." 

Amid  diversities  of  climate  due  to  varying  conditions,  a  pre- 
vailing dryness  and  heat  are  everywhere  found,  except  along 
the  coast  where  humidity  is  experienced.  "  The  world-zone  of 
maximum  heat  in  July  embraces  nearly  the  entire  peninsula." 
So  great  is  it  that  another  characteristic  feature  of  Arabia  re- 
sults, —  the  wadys  which  now,  as  in  Job's  day,  are  full  to  the 
brim  in  winter,  but  are  perfectly  dry  in  summer. 

Arabian  populations  are  divided  into  two  main  classes  by  the 
Arabs  themselves,  the  "  people  of  the  tent "  and  "  people  of  the 
wall,"  or  the  Beduins  and  town-dwellers.  Foreign  writers  in- 
crease the  divisions,  Clark  describing  five :  The  almost  de- 
nationalized agriculturists,  living  mainly  in  houses ;  wandering 
tribes  in  proximity  to  settled  districts,  even  more  demoralized 
than  the  former;  Arabs  of  Turkish  towns  and  villages,  who 
are  also  demoralized ;  inhabitants  of  towns  and  villages  of 
Arabia  proper  who  are  secluded  from  the  rest  of  the  world; 
and  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  interior  who  preserve  the  primi- 
tive habits  and  customs  of  the  race  —  the  genuine  Beduin. 
Though  the  inhabitants  are  affected  by  neighboring  nations, 
so  that  those  living  near  Persia  are  marked  by  some  of  the  na- 
tional traits  of  that  people,  Arabs  of  the  South  by  India,  and 
those  of  the  West  by  Egypt,  the  Arab  in  general  "  is  of  medium 
stature,  muscular  make,  and  brown  complexion.  Independence 
looks  out  of  his  glowing  eyes ;  by  nature  he  is  quick,  sharp- 
witted,  imaginative  and  passionately  fond  of  poetry.  Courage, 
temperance,  hospitality  and  good  faith  are  his  leading  virtues ; 
but  these  are  often  marred  by  a  spirit  of  rapacity  and  san- 
guinary revenge.  His  wife  or  wives  do  the  work,  keep  the 
house  and  educate  the  children."     The  Arab  is  a  bundle  of 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY   UNOCCUPIED  505 

paradoxes  and  this  combination  of  opposing  characteristics 
must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  missionary. 

Arabia  being  the  "  cradle  of  Islam,"  its  religion  is  that  of 
the  prophet.  Here  are  its  great  shrines,  and  the  ancient  seat 
of  Moslem  power.  In  the  ultimate  analysis  Mohammedanism 
is  compounded  of  heathen,  Jewish  and  Christian  elements.  As 
a  factor  in  history,  it  has  been  educative,  aggressive  and  cor- 
rupting. Here  in  its  natal  land  one  finds  the  seat  of  its  at- 
tempted renaissance.  Born  in  1691,  Abd-ul-Wahab  sat  at  the 
feet  of  Islam's  greatest  teachers,  but  was  pained  to  find  in  his 
travels  that  laxity  in  faith  and  practice  was  everywhere  preva- 
lent. "  What  most  offended  the  rigid  monotheism  of  his  phi- 
losophy was  the  almost  universal  visitation  of  shrines,  invoca- 
tion of  saints  and  honor  paid  to  the  tomb  of  Mohammed.  The 
use  of  the  rosary,  of  jewels,  silk,  gold,  silver,  wine  and  tobacco, 
were  all  abominations  to  be  eschewed.  Even  the  four  ortho- 
dox schools  had  departed  from  the  pure  faith.  Therefore  it 
was  that  Abd-ul-Wahab  preached  reform  not  only,  but  pro- 
claimed himself  the  leader  of  a  new  sect.  His  teachings  were 
based  on  the  Koran  and  the  early  traditions."  Though  the 
Wahabis  were  Moslem  Protestants,  they  depended  upon  the 
sword  for  the  extension  of  their  power,  and  wielding  it,  they 
have  in  large  numbers  perished  by  the  sword  in  their  encoun- 
ters with  the  Porte  and  nearer  enemies.  An  important  factor 
in  the  politics  of  southeastern  Asia  during  the  last  century, 
they  are  to-day  confined  to  the  region  of  Riad.  The  sect  is 
now  making  scarcely  any  progress,  though  in  India  it  is  strong 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Patna. 

6.  Turning  from  the  southwestern  portion  of  Asia  to  its 
southeastern  countries,  we  find  in  French  Indo-China  a  terri- 
tory seventy-five  per  cent,  larger  than  France  itself  and  more 
than  twice  as  extensive  as  Japan.  It  is  composed  of  Annam, 
Cambodia,  Cochin-China,  Tongking  and  that  portion  of  the 
Lao  territory  which  is  under  the  protection  of  France.  It  con- 
tains some  22,400,000  inhabitants,  equaling  nearly  two-thirds 
the  population  of  South  America.    The  two  northernmost  por- 


506  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

tions  are  essentially  mountainous,  though  the  region  of  the 
Red  River  and  its  affluents  has  the  only  thickly  settled  region 
in  French  Indo-China.  In  this  deltaic  district  live  some  5,000,- 
000  people,  an  average  of  more  than  800  per  square  mile,  thus 
equalling  the  density  of  Brabant  in  Belgium,  Europe's  most 
thickly  settled  portion.  Cambodia  and  Cochin-China  are 
mainly  low  and  alluvial,  as  the  Mekong  after  its  course  of  2,500 
miles  here  spreads  out  into  one  of  the  largest  deltas  of  Asia. 
The  climate  of  these  countries  except  the  Lao  portion  is  un- 
healthful  and  labors  under  the  disadvantages,  and  possesses  the 
advantages  as  well,  of  the  tropics. 

The  people  that  are  most  influential  both  because  of  their 
numbers  and  political  influence  are  the  Annamese.  They  dwell 
mainly  on  the  eastern  lowlands,  are  tillers  of  the  soil  and  are 
industrious  and  peaceable.  Having  been  for  many  centuries 
under  the  influence  of  the  Chinese,  they  resemble  them  in  many 
particulars.  "  Annamite  society  is  characterized  by  absolute 
equality;  the  family  is  strongly  organized  and  paternal  au- 
thority has  preserved  all  its  strength.  The  Cambodians  or 
Khmers  were  a  powerful  nation  in  the  eighth  century;  their 
ancient  greatness  is  attested  by  the  magnificent  ruins  of  Angor- 
wat,  situated  in  what  is  at  present  Siamese  territory,  not  far 
from  the  great  lake,  Tonle  Sap."  The  Shan  or  Lao  people 
described  in  the  chapter  on  Siam  and  Laos  are  a  third  great 
race.  The  Chinese  dominate  the  native  trade  of  all  French 
Indo-China. 

Religions  follow  the  lines  of  prevailing  national  influence, 
being  Chinese  in  the  emphasis  of  ancestor  worship  and  of  Con- 
fucian ethics  and  usages,  and  also  being  largely  influenced  by 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.  While  India  was  a  dominating 
factor  so  far  as  temple  architecture  was  concerned,  in  religion 
as  in  other  matters  Ratzel's  observation  is  correct :  "  India 
began  earlier  and  then  slackened ;  China  is  always  going  on 
with  the  work,  creating  for  herself  a  far-reaching  effect." 
Roman  Catholics  to  the  number  of  nearly  900,000  are  found  in 
Annam,  Cochin-China  and  Tongking. 


FIELDS   PRACTICALLY   UNOCCUPIED  ^07 

The  languages  of  all  these  countries  are  prevailingly  mono- 
syllabic and  with  the  exception  of  the  Cambodian  markedly 
tonal.  In  the  Annam  and  Tongking  section  the  Chinese  written 
language  is  used  by  the  better  educated,  although  its  spoken 
form  is  widely  different  from  Annamese.  In  much  of  Indo- 
China  the  letters  are  borrowed  from  the  Indian  Pali.  Cam- 
bodia has  a  sort  of  literary  language  made  up  of  Pali  vocables, 
which  is  used  by  priests  and  officials. 


PART   n.  —  MISSIONARY 

Manifestly  there  is  little  to  report  concerning  the  fields  de- 
scribed in  Part  I,  which  are  at  once  so  interesting  and  needy 
and  at  the  same  time  so  devoid  of  evangelical  influences  and 
workers.  Nothing  further  will  be  said  concerning  those  great 
countries,  like  China  and  India,  where  more  millions  are  be- 
yond the  reach  of  the  gospel  than  in  lands  here  discussed ;  and 
only  a  brief  summary  of  work  being  attempted  in  the  fields 
named  in  Section  II  of  the  previous  part  of  the  chapter  will  be 
given. 

I.  Siberia.  —  i.  The  Russian  non-conformists  are  in  a  sense 
a  missionary  element  in  this  extensive  land.  It  is  impossible  to 
give  their  number,  though  Professor  G.  Frederic  Wright  in 
the  January,  1901,  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra  "  estimates  that  500,000 
at  the  very  least  are  found  in  its  various  provinces.  As  is  the 
case  in  America,  whither  those  non-conforming  Russian  sects 
that  are  opposed  to  military  service  have  come  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  form  a  distinct  colony,  so  in  Siberia  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  villages  made  up  of  other  sects  that  are  loyal  to  the 
Czar.  Their  settlements  may  be  readily  recognized  by  the 
absence  of  domes,  crosses  and  pictorial  adornments  in  the 
churches.  Though  the  high  grade  of  morality  marking  these 
communities  ought  to  be  a  blessing  to  Siberia,  their  segrega- 
tion from  others  who  need  these  influences,  their  dispersion  in 
a  few  out-of-the-way  localities  and  the  imperfect  education  of 


508  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

their  religious  leaders,  will  prevent  their  exercising  for  some 
time  to  come  any  extensive  moral  influence.  Because  of  Rus- 
sia's present  policy  of  reducing  Siberia's  penal  character  to  a 
minimum,  and  with  this  practically  Protestant  leaven  in  the 
midst  of  it.  Professor  Wright  is  al5le  to  say :  "  The  conditions 
of  a  new  country  rapidly  filling  up  with  settlers  are  so  favor- 
able to  the  adoption  of  new  customs  and  the  reception  of  new 
light,  that  the  coming  century  may  easily  see  Siberia  leading 
the  whole  Empire  into  purer  and  more  spiritual  religion." 

2.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  is  here  the  great 
Protestant  force  working  for  the  higher  life  of  the  colonists. 
It  is  also  laboring  for  the  pagan  element  in  Siberia.  Bookstalls 
are  found  at  a  number  of  stations  along  the  new  railway  where 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  are  sold.  Russian  scholars,  like  Pro- 
fessor Pozdnejeff  of  Vladivostok,  and  Inspector  Katerinski, 
are  cooperating  with  the  Society  in  bringing  out  translations 
for  the  indigenous  tribes  of  Siberia,  so  that  portions,  at  least, 
of  the  Bible  may  be  had  in  seven  of  its  languages. 

The  main  reliance  in  the  Bible  Society's  work  is  the  colpor- 
teur, rather  than  the  bookstall  or  depot.  He  is  now  becoming 
a  recognized  institution  in  the  land.  "  Peasants  and  workmen 
and  State  officials  all  understand  that  the  man  carrying  the 
knapsack  with  '  Holy  Books  '  is  no  common  peddler."  Free 
passes  are  granted  Bible  Society  agents  on  the  steamboats,  and 
freight  on  paper,  etc.,  is  gratuitous.  The  ubiquitous  man  of 
the  Book  penetrates  all  parts  of  the  country ;  he  talks  with  the 
convict,  the  exile,  the  miner,  the  peasant  and  the  high  official. 
More  than  once  the  priest  has  stood  beside  him  and  urged  his 
parishioners  to  buy,  even  advancing  the  money,  if  necessary. 
How  much  the  country  owes  to  the  Bible  Society  and  its  corps 
of  nine  faithful  colporteurs  and  its  experienced  agent,  is  evi- 
denced by  a  two-column  article  in  the  leading  Siberian  daily, 
"  Ural,"  in  which  is  this  concluding  paragraph.  "  It  would 
be  superfluous  for  me  to  write  of  how  much  good  and  benefit 
is  done  by  the  activity  of  this  Bible  Society  in  circulating  the 
Holy  Scriptures  among  the  unenlightened  masses  of  the  Rus- 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY   UNOCCUPIED  509 

sian  people,  or  among  the  many  peoples  of  this  Empire.  It 
only  remains  for  me  to  wish  that  the  efforts  of  the  Society  may 
be  blessed  with  success  in  the  future." 

II.  Central  Asia.  —  i.  This  extensive  territory,  consisting 
of  Western  and  Chinese  Turkistan  —  Hsin-chiang,  has  only 
one  society  laboring  within  its  borders,  the  Svenska  Missions- 
forbimdet.  Its  stations,  Kashgar  and  Yarkand,  are  both  in 
Chinese  Turkistan.  Though  the  first  representative  of  the 
Swedish  Society  came  in  1891,  work  was  not  regularly  organ- 
ized until  1894. 

2.  Thus  far  it  is  of  a  preparatory  character,  according  to  one 
of  its  missionaries,  L.  Hogberg.  "  Four  gospels  have  now 
been  translated  and  printed  in  the  Kashgarian  language,  an 
important  step  for  the  Mission.  The  whole  New  Testament 
is  translated,  but  has  not  yet  been  printed.  At  both  stations 
we  have  also  medical  work  with  a  store  of  drugs  and  some  sur- 
gical instruments.  Several  thousand  patients  have  been  treated 
and  relieved  of  suffering.  By  means  of  conversations,  daily 
meetings  and  tours  to  other  villages  and  towns  we  seek  to  sow 
the  Word  of  Life.  The  visible  fruits  of  the  mission  work  are, 
thus  far,  two  young  men  who  have  confessed  their  faith  in 
Christ.  They  have  learned  to  read  and  have  shown  much  per- 
severance and  zeal  and  are  living  upright,  moral  lives."  As 
Kashgar  appears  to  the  traveler  like  an  oasis  in  the  wilderness, 
the  sterile  mountains  and  grayish  yellow  loess  giving  way  here 
to  rich  vegetation,  so  this  beginning  of  fruitage  in  a  wide  wil- 
derness is  the  seal  of  better  things  reserved  for  the  consecrated 
Swedish  missionaries, 

III.  Tibet.  —  Thus  far  this  veritable  Hermit  Kingdom  has 
prevented  long  residence  of  Protestant  missionaries  within  its 
borders.  While  it  is  besieged  on  its  eastern,  southern  and 
southwestern  frontiers,  and  though  brief  journeys  within  its 
bounds  have  been  effected,  it  is  at  present  practically  closed  to 
missionaries. 

I.  The  besieging  bands  in  China  are  members  of  the  Tibetan 
Band  of  the  China  Inland  Mission  and  the  Christian  and  Mis- 


510  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

sionary  Alliance.  The  latter  are  located  in  Kan-su  on  the 
northeastern  border,  while  the  China  Inland  missionaries  are 
working  on  the  eastern  frontier  in  the  province  of  Sze-chwan. 
In  India  the  Scandinavian  Alliance  Mission  of  North  America 
and  the  Moravians  are  especially  devoted  to  this  form  of  effort, 
while  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland's  Kampilong  workers, 
the  London  Missionary  Society's  in  Almora  and  the  Church 
Missionary  Society's  in  Kashmir  are  also  doing  something  for 
the  Forbidden  Land  as  opportunity  offers.  The  Assam  Fron- 
tier Mission  is  likewise  doing  much  in  this  line.  The  main 
attempts  have  been  preparatory  in  character.  A  splendid 
record  belongs  to  the  Moravians  who,  perched  on  the  roof  of 
the  world  in  Kashmir,  have  prepared  linguistic  and  mission- 
ary literature  in  Tibetan.  So  far  as  direct  work  has  been  at- 
tempted, it  has  affected  only  the  Tibetans  dwelling  on  the 
border  and  especially  the  traders  who  come  into  India  and 
China  to  return  to  the  heart  of  Tibet  with  Scriptures  and  some 
personal  knowledge  of  the  truth.  While  Darjiling  and  Sikkim 
are  the  places  where  missionaries  have  often  learned  the  lan- 
guage and  through  which  traders  gain  easiest  access  to  the 
capital,  Lhasa,  this  district  is  likewise  the  place  where  the 
closest  watch  is  kept  against  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
Kashmir,  or  Little  Tibet,  is  too  remote  from  the  heart  of  the 
Forbidden  Land,  and  the  region  where  the  Christian  and  Mis- 
sionary Alliance  is  laying  siege  is  too  sparsely  settled  to  be 
very  helpful  to  Tibet's  occupation.  The  Sze-chwan  approach, 
through  Chinese  traders  and  Tibetans  living  on  the  border, 
seems  by  common  consent  to  promise  the  largest  results  in 
the  future. 

2.  The  two  entrances  that  have  occasioned  the  most  hope, 
perhaps,  have  been  the  journeys  of  Miss  Annie  R.  Taylor  and 
of  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Rijnhart.  In  1898  the  two  latter  penetrated 
to  Nagch'ukha,  a  town  only  150  miles  from  the  capital.  Thence 
they  were  forced  to  return,  the  husband  disappearing  or  dying 
shortly  thereafter,  thus  leaving  Mrs.  Rijnhart  to  continue  the 
journey  in  the  utmost  danger.    Both  of  the  tours  named  seem 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  5 II 

to  show  that  the  best  poHcy  to  pursue  is  that  of  waiting  on  the 
borders  and  by  medicine,  industrial  work,  etc.,  accompanying 
the  printed  and  spoken  word,  gradually  winning  the  love  of 
Tibetans.  Recently  the  attitude  of  the  Tibetan  hierarchy  seems 
to  have  undergone  a  change,  due  possibly  to  the  hostility  felt 
by  their  country  for  the  suzerain  in  Peking.  Hitherto  China 
has  closely  guarded  Tibet  from  the  outside  world,  and  now  in 
this  hour  of  her  weakness  Tibet  has  an  opportunity  to  injure 
her  hereditary  foe.  At  any  rate  the  Catholic  Bishop  Biet  re- 
ports that  the  death  penalty,  formerly  threatening  all  mission- 
aries and  actually  visited  upon  Romanist  workers  within  the 
border,  has  been  repealed  and  religious  liberty  is  henceforth 
possible. 

IV.  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan.  —  i.  In  Afghanis- 
tan work  cannot  be  done  except  through  natives.  Yet  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  from  its  stations  west  of  the  Indus, 
and  especially  from  Peshawar  as  a  center,  is  conducting  the 
Afghan  Mission.  Owing  to  the  character  of  the  people,  it  re- 
quires the  utmost  tact  and  bravery.  The  British  officials  have 
been  on  the  whole  helpful  to  the  work,  evidently  following  the 
precedent  of  the  heroic  Christian,  Commissioner  Edwardes, 
who  nearly  half  a  century  ago  made  this  brave  declaration, 
which  the  authorities  in  Khartum  might  read  with  profit: 
"  Our  mission  in  India  is  to  do  for  other  nations  what  we  have 
done  for  our  own.  To  the  Hindus  we  have  to  preach  one 
God,  and  to  the  Mohammedans  to  preach  one  Mediator,  I  say 
plainly  that  we  have  no  fear  that  the  establishment  of  a  Chris- 
tian mission  at  Peshawar  will  tend  to  disturb  the  peace.  We 
may  be  quite  sure  that  we  are  much  safer  if  we  do  our  duty 
than  if  we  neglect  it ;  and  that  He  who  has  brought  us  here  with 
His  own  right  arm  will  shield  us  and  bless  us  if,  in  simple  re- 
liance upon  Him,  we  try  to  do  His  will."  While  converts  have 
been  few,  some  of  them  have  been  of  great  strength,  as  Fazl 
Haqq,  the  evangelist  to  Kafiristan,  and  Dilawar  Khan,  sent  by 
the  Government  on  a  secret  mission  to  Central  Asia,  where  he 
was  treacherously  slain.    The  mission  guest-house  has  been  a 


512  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT   MISSIONS 

potent  agency  in  winning  Afghans,  and  some  of  the  chiefs  have 
sent  their  sons  to  the  missionaries  to  be  educated.  Edwardes 
College  will  be  a  large  influence  in  the  future  of  the  Afghan, 
and  medical  work  is  always  a  winning  feature. 

2..  Baluchistan  has  a  station  in  its  very  heart,  though  it  is  at 
Quetta  which  is  administered  by  British  officials  in  behalf  of 
the  Khan  of  Khelat.  The  bookshop  and  the  medical  work  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  are  the  agencies  most  appre- 
ciated by  the  people.  In  their  last  report  Dr.  Summerhayes 
says  of  the  value  of  the  bookshop :  "  The  thing  that  struck 
me  is  this,  that  the  Word  of  God  is  slowly  leavening  the  mass. 
It  wds  reported  to  me  that  an  Arab  who  came  and  heard  the 
preaching  said,  when  he  was  tackled  about  his  faith,  that  he 
had  the  Old  and  New  Testament  and  knew  that  they  showed 
the  right  way  even  better  than  the  Koran,  but  feared  to  let  this 
be  known,  or  he  would  be  called  a  Wahabi." 

V.  Arabia.  —  If  Bagdad  and  Mosul  are  treated  as  cities 
of  Turkey  and  the  regions  about  Damascus  and  the  southeast- 
ern corner  of  the  Dead  Sea  be  reckoned  as  part  of  Syria,  Arabia 
has  but  two  missionary  societies  at  present  laboring  for  the 
descendants  of  Ishmael. 

I.  Dr.  Wolff  in  1836  and  Dr.  Stern,  twenty  years  later,  vis- 
ited Arabian  Jews,  but  what  was  then  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land laid  the  foundations  of  modern  Arabian  missionary  effort 
upon  the  grave  of  its  talented  young  Arabic  professor.  Ion 
Keith-Falconer.  Dying  when  he  was  only  upon  the  threshold 
of  a  great  work  in  1887,  the  Church  continued  the  mission, 
strongly  moved  thereto  by  his  last  appeal :  "  While  vast 
continents  are  shrouded  in  almost  utter  darkness  and  hun- 
dreds of  millions  suffer  the  horrors  of  heathenism  or  Islam, 
the  burden  of  proof  lies  upon  you  to  show  that  the  circum- 
stances in  which  God  has  placed  you  were  meant  by  Him  to 
keep  you  out  of  the  mission  field."  The  enterprise  has  since 
that  time  been  carried  on  upon  the  basis  which  he  himself  sug- 
gested. Being  strongly  impressed  by  the  act  of  a  Moham- 
medan who  asked  for  a  sheet  of  paper  and  then  scrawled  upon 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  513 

it  in  mysterious  fashion  these  words,  "  If  you  want  the  people 
to  walk  in  your  way,  then  set  up  schools,"  he  made  education  a 
fundamental  work.  Medicine  for  the  bodies  of  needy  men  and 
the  Bible  as  a  panacea  for  spiritual  ills  were  other  points  in  his 
program  which  the  last  report  of  the  Keith-Falconer  Mission, 
as  his  Church  still  calls  it,  shows  are  the  main  issues  of  the 
campaign.  A  new  industrial  school  and  touring  by  the  phy- 
sician are  recent  causes  of  growth.  Dr.  Young  reports  that 
during  the  past  year  the  nationalities  represented  in  the  dis- 
pensary at  Sheikh  Othman,  near  Aden,  were  Arab,  Somali, 
Jew,  Abyssinian,  Indian  Mohammedan  and  Hindu. 

2.  The  work  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  which  was 
initiated  single-handed  and  alone  by  Bishop  Valpy  French  on 
the  completion  of  his  fortieth  year  of  missionary  service,  was 
at  Maskat,  on  the  southeastern  corner  of  Arabia.  Here  since 
1891  the  Bishop's  grave  has  been  a  silent  appeal  to  the  English 
Church,  just  as  is  Keith-Falconer's  on  the  southwestern  horn. 
It  has  been  reserved  for  the  Reformed  Church  in  America 
to  do  the  widest  work  in  Arabia.  At  Busra  near  the  head  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the  island  of  Bahrein  off  its  western  shore 
and  at  Maskat  are  the  three  outposts  of  this  Church.  Medi- 
cine, itinerating  with  the  special  object  of  selling  the  Scriptures 
and  talking  with  men  upon  religious  themes,  and  personal  in- 
terviews with  inquirers  are  the  constant  means  used  by  mis- 
sionaries, schools  not  yet  having  been  made  a  specialty.  Mr. 
Zwemer,  the  leading  worker  in  Arabia,  quotes  an  Arab  as  say- 
ing that  a  missionary  "  would  be  worshiped,  rather  than  wel- 
comed, everywhere."  In  many  places,  especially  in  Oman, 
there  is  a  scarcity  of  books  and  a  marked  love  for  them,  —  so 
much  so  that  women  even  will  leave  their  huts  and  run  after 
the  missionary  to  bargain  for  a  coveted  booklet. 

Of  the  need  for  missionaries  Mr.  Zwemer  said  in  1900: 
"  The  present  missionary  force  in  Arabia  is  utterly  inadequate 
to  supply  the  needs  of  even  that  portion  of  the  field  which 
they  have  occupied.  There  are  only  four  points  on  a  coast  of 
4,000  miles  where  there  are  missionaries.    There  is  not  a  single 


514  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

missionary  over  ten  miles  inland  from  this  coast.  No  mission- 
ary has  ever  crossed  the  peninsula  in  either  direction.  The 
total  number  of  foreign  missionaries  in  Arabia  is  less  than  a 
dozen  —  twelve  workers,  men  and  women,  let  us  say,  for  a 
population  of  8,000,000  souls.  Of  the  total  area  of  the  penin- 
sula only  about  one-twelfth  is  in  any  way  reached  by  missionary 
effort.  Ten  men  out  of  every  eleven  have  no  opportunity 
in  this  neglected  country  to  hear  the  gospel,  even  if  they 
would." 

Concerning  the  missionary's  qualifications  he  writes :  "  He 
should  know  how  to  rough  it  when  necessary;  the  more  of 
the  Bohemian  there  is  in  his  nature  the  better.  He  should  have 
both  ability  and  dogged  determination  enough  to  acquire  the 
Arabic  language.  Other  scholarship  is  useful  but  not  neces- 
sary. To  get  along  well  with  the  Arabs  he  should  have  pa- 
tience, and  to  avoid  wearing  himself  out,  a  good  temper.  Re- 
garding spiritual  qualifications  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote 
the  solemn  words  at  the  close  of  General  Haig's  paper  on 
'  Arabia  as  a  Mission  Field.'  They  deserve  to  be  repeated,  not 
only  for  the  sake  of  those  who  send  missionaries  to  Arabia, 
but  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  missionaries  to  Arabia. 
'  Given  the  right  men,  and  Arabia  may  be  won  for  Christ ; 
start  with  the  wrong  men,  and  little  will  be  accomplished.  But 
what  qualifications  are  needed !  What  enthusiasm,  what  fire  of 
love,  what  dogged  resolution,  what  uttermost  self-sacrificing 
zeal  for  the  salvation  of  men  and  the  glory  of  Christ ! '  " 

VI.  French  Indo-China.  —  i.  But  one  form  of  work  is 
being  extensively  carried  on  in  this  populous  region  by  Protest- 
ants, that  of  the  Bible  Society.  The  agents  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  are  working  in  the  southern  portion  of  Indo-China 
with  much  success.  Thus  the  report  of  1900  states  that  dur- 
ing the  year  42,558  Scripture  portions  were  disposed  of  in  that 
needy  land.  Most  of  these  by  far  were  Chinese  Scriptures, 
and  they  were  sold  to  Chinese  and  Annamites  in  about  equal 
numbers.  The  Bible  boat,  "  Robert  Warton,"  is  of  the  utmost 
value  in  their  itinerations. 


FIELDS    PRACTICALLY    UNOCCUPIED  515 

2.  The  Presbyterian  missionaries  among  the  Laos  are  mak- 
ing some  excursions  into  the  region  east  of  their  field.  French 
officials  strongly  oppose  this  action,  but  natives  of  Laos  are 
permitted  to  remain.  Only  evangelistic  efforts  have  thus  far 
been  emphasized  in  this  portion  of  Indo-China.  It  may  prove 
an  incentive  to  the  native  Church  of  Laos  to  have  thus  thrust 
upon  them  a  foreign  work  which  only  they  can  enter. 


XX 

MISSIONS  TO  THE  JEWS 

PART  I.  — GENERAL 

As  THE  Jews  are  a  cosmopolitan  people  and  are  confined 
to  no  single  country,  they  have  not  been  alluded  to  except 
casually  in  previous  chapters.  Since  Protestant  societies  labor- 
ing among  them  number  almost  thirty,  and  in  view  of  their  re- 
lation to  Christianity,  special  mention  of  this  exceedingly  im- 
portant work  must  be  made. 

1.  Number  and  Distribution.  —  i.  An  accurate  census  of 
the  race  is  not  possible.  Perhaps  the  best  authority  on  the  sub- 
ject is  "  The  Jewish  Year-Book,"  and  according  to  the  issue 
of  1 90 1 -2  they  are  said  to  number  11,242,665.  This  authority 
gives  their  distribution  as  follows:  European  countries,  9,351,- 
730;  Asiatic  countries,  368,000;  African  countries,  403,800; 
America,  1,103.135;  Australia,  16,000.  An  accurate  enumer- 
ation of  Jews  in  the  United  States  reports  1,058,135. 

2.  A  word  should  be  said  about  the  chief  centers  of  distribu- 
tion. The  Palestine  of  the  twentieth  century  Jew  is  in  the 
heart  of  Europe.  Within  the  confines  of  what  used  to  be 
Poland,  but  which  is  now  partitioned  among  Prussia,  Austria 
and  Russia,  live  nearly  eight  out  of  every  ten  Jews  in  the 
world,  and  from  this  center  they  have  scattered  throughout 
the  earth. 

London  is  a  second  important  center.    The  Jews  here  are  not 
only  mainly  Polish,  but  also  speak  Yiddish,  the  colloquial  He- 
brew of  Poland.    East  End  is  an  English  Jewry  in  which  most 
S16 


MISSIONS    TO    THE   JEWS  517 

of  London's  80,000  Hebrews  live  with  Jewish  signs  over  their 
doors,  and  amid  surroundings  and  activities  essentially  for- 
eign. Precisely  what  modern  Jewish  life  is  in  a  Gentile  envi- 
ronment is  depicted,  with  a  faithfulness  and  charm  nowhere 
else  to  be  found,  in  Mr.  I.  Zangwill's  "  The  Children  of  the 
Ghetto."  Secretary  Gidney  of  the  London  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christianity  Amongst  the  Jews  —  to  whom  the  author 
is  mainly  indebted  for  the  facts  of  this  chapter  —  asserts  that 
there  is  no  book  like  it,  both  in  its  delineation  of  daily  life 
and  worship  and  in  its  picture  of  the  evolution  of  poverty- 
stricken  Polish  old-clothes  men  into  Anglicised  Jews  of  qual- 
ity found  in  Kensington  and  styled  the  "  Grandchildren  of  the 
Ghetto." 

Palestine,  though  not  containing  so  large  a  Hebrew  popu- 
lation as  many  other  countries,  is  naturally  a  land  of  peculiar 
interest  to  all  Jews.  Within  the  last  sixty  years  they  have 
greatly  increased  and  are  found  in  extensive  colonies  all  over 
the  country,  the  one  in  and  near  Jerusalem  being  the  most 
numerous  —  some  20,000  it  is  estimated. 

A  third  Jewish  center  is  North  Africa,  concerning  which 
Gidney  writes :  "  Jews  have  been  settled  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  Barbary  States  from  the  earliest  times,  and  to-day 
form  a  fair  proportion  of  the  population  of  Tripoli,  Tunisia, 
Algeria  and  Morocco,  numbering  about  250,000.  They  are 
known  as  Moghrebi,  or  Mugrabi,  i.e.,  Western  Jews,  from  the 
Arab  designation  of  the  district  as  Moghreb,  i.e.,  the  West." 

America  has  been  a  land  of  promise  to  multitudes  of  He- 
brews, where  they  have  not  only  been  granted  unusual  free- 
dom from  persecution,  but  have  also  occupied  an  honorable 
position  in  the  financial  and  literary  world.  New  York  State 
has  the  most  of  them,  and  Illinois  stands  next. 

But  it  is  persecuting  Russia  which  to-day  contains  the  larg- 
est number  of  these  people,  about  one-half  of  the  entire  race 
calling  this  their  land  of  pilgrimage.  Though  previously  hos- 
tile to  them,  with  the  acquisition  of  the  largest  slice  of  Poland 
came  the  damnosa  hereditas  of  a  horde  of  Jews.    Theoretically 


5l8  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

they  are  confined  to  the  "  Pale  of  Jewish  Settlement,"  the 
fifteen  Russian-Poland  provinces.  The  estimate  in  which  they 
are  held  is  indicated  by  a  sign-board  placed  at  the  entrance  to 
a  public  park.    "  No  Jews  or  Dogs  Admitted  Here." 

II.  The  Modern  Jewish  Renaissance.  —  i.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Jews  at  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
when  this  awakening  began,  is  well  summarized  by  Israel 
Davis.  "  The  persecutions  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  produced 
their  natural  effect.  Cut  off  from  their  fellow-citizens,  ex- 
cluded by  oppressive  laws  from  all  trades  except  that  of  ped- 
dling in  old  clothes  and  even  from  buying  certain  classes  of 
these,  especially  taxed,  confined  to  Ghettos  and  Judengassen, 
strictly  prohibited  from  entering  some  towns,  limited  in  num- 
bers in  others,  forbidden  to  marry  except  under  restrictions  de- 
signed to  check  the  growth  of  the  Jewish  population,  disabled 
from  employing  Christian  servants  or  being  members  of  trade 
guilds,  the  Jews  seemed  by  their  abject  condition  to  deserve  the 
evils  which  were  its  cause." 

2.  It  was  Moses  Mendel,  better  known  as  Mendelssohn,  who 
proved  an  eighteenth  century  Jewish  saviour.  Poverty  and 
deformity  were  not  able  to  eclipse  the  genius  which  was  be- 
gotten of  Maimonides  and  of  German  culture.  His  friendship 
for  Lessing  led  that  poet  to  write  his  "  Nathan  der  Weise,"  the 
first  modern  literary  production  which  presented  the  Jew  in 
a  benevolent  light.  Mendelssohn's  literary  labors  speedily 
brought  him  to  the  forefront  of  Berlin's  higher  life,  and  every 
visitor  to  the  capital  sought  his  acquaintance  at  an  afternoon 
salon  which  he  held.  This  liberal  philosopher  "  broke  through 
the  barriers  and  let  in  the  light  of  learning  and  of  social  coun- 
tenance on  mediaeval,  benighted  Judaism."  From  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  present  a  series  of  govern- 
mental proclamations  and  the  greater  charity  of  men  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  a  gradual  improvement  in  Jewish 
life  and  the  brilliancy  and  worth  of  their  great  leaders,  have 
made  a  new  being  of  the  Hebrew.  Some  of  the  foremost  men 
of  recent  times  are  proud  of  the  Jewish  name  —  statesmen  like 


MISSIONS    TO    THE   JEWS  519 

Jules  Simon  and  Disraeli;  the  Rothschilds  and  Hirsches  in 
the  realm  of  finance ;  world  travelers  such  as  Wolff  and  Emin 
Pasha;  a  host  of  inspired  musicians,  Mendelssohn,  Rubinstein 
and  the  Strauss  family  being  representatives;  historians, 
among  whom  are  Neander  and  Graetz ;  the  poets  Heine  and 
Morris ;  and  novelists  like  Auerbach  and  Zangwill.  In  every 
department  of  activity  the  Jew  of  our  day  is  more  than  pro- 
portionately represented,  and  this  very  largely  because  of  Men- 
delssohn's renaissance. 

III.  Jewish  Sects  of  To-day.  —  Disregarding  minor  divi- 
sions, there  are  four  leading  parties  among  modern  Jews. 

1.  Though  they  do  not  themselves  use  the  term,  the  largest 
section  of  the  race  may  be  called  Orthodox  Jews.  This  is  "  a 
convenient  term  wherewith  to  describe  those  who  adhere  to  the 
Talmud  and  rabbinical  precepts,  and  who  answer  to  the  Phari- 
sees of  old.  Under  this  head  must  come  all  the  millions  of 
Polish  Jews,  nearly  all  Eastern  and  African  Jews,  and  the 
majority  of  English  Jews."  Two  subdivisions  may  be  men- 
tioned, the  Spanish-speaking  Sephardim,  or  Jewish  aristocracy, 
and  the  Ashkenazim,  or  German-speaking  Hebrews  who  num- 
ber nineteen-twentieths  of  the  Orthodox  party. 

2.  Reformed  Jews  are  found  in  Europe  —  outside  of  Poland, 
—  in  England  and  in  America,  —  nearly  all  those  residing  in 
the  latter  country  belong  to  this  party.  "  They  answer  to  the 
Sadducees  of  old.  They  reject  not  merely  the  Talmud,  but 
also  the  inspired  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament.  They  have 
given  up  all  belief  in  the  advent  of  a  personal  Messiah,  and 
are  willing  to  hail  any  benefactor  of  their  race  as  such.  The 
question  of  a  Jewish  return  to  Palestine  is  regarded  with  open 
disdain." 

3.  The  Chassidim  are  the  "  pious  "  or  puritan  Jews.  This 
sect  was  founded  in  1730  as  a  protest  against  the  laxity  of  the 
Orthodox  party.  They  "  number  half  a  million  at  the  present 
day  and  its  members  may  be  distinguished  by  their  long  coats 
and  curls.  The  Chassidim  lay  great  stress  upon  prayer,  and 
attach  much    significance    to  the  study  of  the    Cabbala,"  a 


520  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

mythical  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  said  to  have  been 
given  by  God  to  Adam,  and  now  found  in  the  Zokar,  or  Cabba- 
list's  Bible.  They  are  met  with  in  Russia,  Roumania,  Galicia 
and  Hungary  and  are  decreasing  in  number. 

4.  The  Protestants  of  Judaism  are  the  Karaites,  or  "  Scrip- 
turists."  The  name  is  assumed  because  they  adhere  principally 
to  the  Pentateuch  and  reject  the  Talmud.  They  number  only 
about  3,000,  found  principally  in  the  Crimea,  with  a  few  in 
Russia  and  Syria. 

5.  While  not  sects  in  any  sense,  two  other  classes  of  He- 
brews should  be  mentioned.  One  of  these  has  been  denomi- 
nated Crypto-Jews,  "  who  have  been  obliged  to  conceal  their 
religion,  owing  to  persecution."  While  these  belong  mainly  to 
the  periods  of  persecution,  "  in  ordinary  London  and  European 
society  there  are  probably  not  a  few  who  conceal  their  race  and 
religion."  The  second  class  are  the  Pseudo-Jews  who  are  such 
by  faith  and  not  because  of  racial  origin.  Here  belong  the 
Crimean  Karaites  just  mentioned,  who  are  of  Tatar  origin, 
the  Black  Jews  of  Cochin  and  Malabar,  and  the  Loango  Jews 
who  are  African  negroes. 

IV.  Recent  Jewish  Movements.  —  i.  Of  the  two  noted, 
the  first  looks  toward  the  secular  bettering  of  social  and  tem- 
poral conditions,  through  the  founding  of  Jewish  colonies.  In- 
spired and  aided  by  the  Jewish  Colonization  Association  and 
mainly  financed  by  the  munificence  of  the  late  Baron  Hirsch, 
they  are  found  in  Argentina,  the  United  States,  Canada,  Pales- 
tine, Cyprus,  Russia  and  Roumania.  The  most  important  of 
these  is  that  of  Argentina.  "  At  first  the  idea  of  settling  in 
South  America  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm,  as  if  a  new  El- 
Dorado  had  been  discovered.  Distance  lent  enchantment  to  the 
scheme.  Enthusiasm  has  cooled  down  with  experience;  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  eyes  of  wandering  Jews  are 
directed  not  so  much  to  the  West  as  to  the  East,  to  the  home 
of  their  forefathers." 

2.  The  second  important  movement  of  recent  date  is  that 
known  as  Zionism.     In  its  present  form  it  originated  in  the 


MISSIONS    TO    THE    JEWS  $21 

interest  evoked  by  the  "  Jewish  State,"  published  in  1896  by 
an  Austrian  Jew,  Dr.  Herzl,  who  set  forth  plans  for  the  re-crea- 
tion of  a  Jewish  Kingdom  in  the  home  of  their  fathers.  The 
following  year  a  Zionist  conference  was  held  at  Basle,  where 
representatives  of  the  race  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
to  confer  as  to  the  best  methods  of  promoting  the  two  leading 
ideas  of  Zionism,  a  return  to  Judaism  and  then  to  Judea.  Later 
conferences  and  agitation  have  stimulated  still  more  this  ob- 
ject, though  with  little  sympathy  and  cooperation  from  Re- 
formed Jews.  Christian  students  of  Jewish  problems  are 
deeply  interested  in  this  scheme,  as  many  of  them  believe  that 
the  Jews  will  one  day,  "  in  God's  good  time,  inhabit  the  land  of 
their  forefathers ;  otherwise  we  can  offer  no  valid  explanation 
of  a  people  without  a  land  and  a  land  without  a  people." 


PART  II.  — MISSIONARY 

L  Force  and  Its  Distribution.  —  i.  In  Volume  II  the  in- 
complete list  of  societies  laboring  for  the  Jews  contains  twenty- 
six.  Of  these,  three  are  American,  thirteen  are  British  and  ten 
are  Continental.  The  small  number  reported  for  America  is 
partly  due  to  a  comparative  lack  of  interest  in  Jewish  missions 
prevalent  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  partly  to  the 
fact  that  Jews  in  America  are  more  liberal  and  hence  nearer 
Christianity  in  its  Unitarian  form.  Many  American  rabbis 
preach  sermons  that  would  edify  any  Christian,  and  they  not 
infrequently  speak  in  most  reverent  terms  of  Jesus. 

2.  The  list  in  Volume  II  also  shows  in  what  countries  the 
various  societies  are  laboring,  while  the  several  maps  indicate 
by  a  carmine  J  following  the  names  of  towns  where  mission- 
aries to  Jews  reside.  This,  however,  gives  no  indication  as  to 
where  the  need  for  such  workers  is  greatest.  A  prominent 
Jewish  missionary,  Rev.  F.  L.  Denman,  stated  at  the  Student 
Volunteer  Conference  of  1900  in  London  that  Russia  was  the 


522  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

most  needy  field  and  the  one  in  which  Gentile  missionaries, 
rather  than  Jewish  converts,  must  be  used.  Next  come  the 
Mediterranean  countries  of  Africa,  the  commercial  centers  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  Spanish-speaking  Jews  of  the  Levant. 

II.  Methods  Employed.  —  i.  Social  and  industrial  efforts 
are  very  effectual  in  every  land,  except  Russia,  where  ostra- 
cism might  more  easily  reach  those  who  openly  consorted  with 
the  missionaries,  even  if  such  efforts  were  permitted  by  the 
Government.  Industrial  schools  are  much  appreciated,  and 
free  reading-rooms  are  frequented.  At  these  places  the 
workers,  especially  the  unpaid  force,  find  a  good  opportunity 
to  gain  Jewish  friendships.  The  Wanderers  Home  and  the 
Operative  Jewish  Converts'  Institution  of  London  are  examples 
of  what  may  be  done  through  such  agencies. 

2.  Educational  ivork,  including  besides  the  industrial  schools 
just  named,  kindergartens  and  free  schools,  are  a  still  stronger 
leverage,  albeit  intended  almost  wholly  for  the  young.  As  was 
seen  in  the  chapters  on  Persia  and  the  Turkish  Empire,  these 
schools  are  the  surest  way  of  gaining  a  hold  on  Jewish  youth 
of  non-Christian  lands. 

3.  As  the  Hebrews  are  an  intellectual  people  and  usually  lit- 
erate, the  printed  page  has  always  been  an  exceedingly  pow- 
erful agency  in  Jewish  missions.  Fortunately  some  of  the 
strongest  minds  of  Europe  have  been  interested  in  this  form 
of  effort  and  hence  the  apologetic  and  periodical  literature  of 
Jewish  missions  stands  in  the  front  rank.  Foi  those  who  do 
not  easily  read  the  Hebrew  New  Testament,  books,  Scripture 
portions  and  papers  in  Yiddish  are  largely  produced  and  sent 
into  otherwise  inaccessible  homes.  In  Russia  the  New  Tes- 
tament and  Yiddish  tracts  and  books  are  especially  useful,  as 
the  Government  allows  their  distribution  and  also  an  explana- 
tion of  the  Scriptures. 

Great  wisdom  is  exhibited  in  securing  the  reading  of  such 
material.  Much  of  it  is  sent  by  mail  to  prominent  Jews,  special 
testimonies  of  distinguished  converts  being  thus  brought  to  the 
attention  of  their  countrymen.    The  Bible  Shop-window  Misr 


MISSIONS    TO    THE    JEWS  523 

sion,  started  in  Philadelphia  in  1898,  has  been  very  useful. 
"  Open  Bibles  in  Hebrew,  Yiddish,  German  and  Russian,  as 
well  as  tracts  in  different  languages,  are  laid  in  the  show- 
window  of  a  store  in  the  Jewish  quarter  to  attract  the  passing 
Jew.  The  pages  are  turned  every  day  in  order  to  cause  in- 
quirers to  return;  and  Bibles,  New  Testaments  and  religious 
papers  are  distributed  freely  by  the  person  in  charge  of  the 
store." 

4.  Evangelistic  work  —  usually  in  halls,  as  street  preach- 
ing is  too  public  for  modern  inquirers,  —  is  most  emphasized 
in  Great  Britain  and  America.  The  Hebrew  is  well  read  in 
his  own  Scriptures  as  a  rule,  and  hence  the  missionary  must  be 
ready  to  answer  any  number  of  objections.  So  manifest  is  the 
need  of  well  trained  missionaries  that  the  various  Instituta  Ju- 
daica  of  Germany,  with  the  one  at  Berlin  University  under 
Professor  Strack  as  the  most  successful,  perhaps,  have  been 
established  to  meet  the  demand.  A  number,  however,  have 
ceased  to  exist. 

5.  Medical  work  is  especially  used  in  lands  where  access  to 
Jews  is  difficult.  No  matter  how  loudly  the  rabbi  may  curse 
his  people  for  so  doing,  when  in  need  of  a  physician  and  unable 
to  obtain  one  either  through  poverty,  or  because  as  in  Persia 
no  good  one  is  obtainable  except  in  the  mission  service,  the 
missionary  is  called  upon  and  his  words  have  great  influence. 
In  Russia  this  form  of  ministry  ought  to  be  more  largely  em- 
ployed, where  permission  can  be  secured.  Even  in  London 
thousands  of  Jews  gladly  come  to  the  Mildmay  dispensary 
each  year. 

6.  The  kind  of  men  needed  to  carry  on  the  activities  thus 
summarized  has  been  depicted  by  the  veteran  Secretary  of  the 
Mildmay  Mission  to  the  Jews,  Rev.  John  Wilkinson.  "  First, 
we  want  men  who  know  by  experience  the  doctrine  taught  by 
Jesus  Christ  to  Nicodemus  in  the  third  chapter  of  St.  John; 
converted  men,  not  merely  scholars.  Secondly,  men  filled  with 
Christ-like  compassion  for  His  brethren  according  to  the  flesh. 
Thirdly,  men  who  have  some  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  of 


524  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Jewish  history  and  literature;  for  a  man  who  has  this  knowl- 
edge inspires  the  Jews  with  respect.  Fourthly,  men  having 
some  acquaintance  with  the  revealed  purpose  of  God  in  the 
Jew.  Further,  they  should  have  skill  in  showing  from  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  —  the  Old  Testament  alone,  without  touch- 
ing the  New  —  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah.  Men  are  needed 
with  ability  to  meet  the  special  difficulties  of  the  Jew  —  for 
example  —  the  Trinity,  Christ's  twofold  nature,  the  deity  of- 
the  Messiah,  and  the  harmony  of  the  genealogies." 

III.  The  Outlook.  —  i.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  Jew, 
as  reflected  in  utterances  of  their  leaders,  there  is  an  evident 
feeling  of  despair  as  signs  of  religious  disintegration  are  noted. 
The  political  disabilities  under  which  they  suffer  in  many  lands, 
the  inroads  of  materialism  and  secularization,  the  various  hos- 
tile sects.  Sabbath  desecration,  the  Zionist  movement  which  is 
a  sign  of  promise  and  a  note  of  doom,  make  the  advocates  of 
Judaism  regard  its  future  with  foreboding. 

2.  This  fact  by  itself  might  lead  one  to  think  that  the  con- 
version of  Israel  was  growing  increasingly  hopeless.  This  is 
hardly  the  case,  however.  Rev.  Louis  Meyer,  in  a  recent  issue 
of  the  "  Jewish  Era,"  writes  hopefully  of  the  outlook  as  vietved 
by  the  worker:  "  We  can  truly  assert  that  the  attitude  of  the 
Jews  toward  Christianity  is  far  more  favorable  at  the  present 
day  than  it  has  been  at  any  period  since  Apostolic  times ;  and 
the  hostile  opposition  of  the  orthodox,  as  well  as  of  the  re- 
formed or  rationalistic  Jew,  is  greatly  diminished  and  miti- 
gated." In  general  the  attitude  of  the  Jews  toward  the  mis- 
sionaries has  become  an  attitude  of  polite  inquiry ;  and  though 
the  audiences  in  Jewish  chapels  are  still  small,  vehement  in- 
terruptions and  open  outbreaks  of  violent  hostility  become  less 
and  less  frequent."  The  eminent  Jewish  authority.  Pastor  de 
le  Roi,  in  two  articles  that  appeared  in  the  "  Nathanael  "  of 
Berlin,  states  that  during  the  last  century  a  quarter  of  a  mil- 
lion Jews  were  won  to  Christianity.  Of  these  the  Greek 
Church  received  the  greatest  number,  —  about  thirty-six  per 
cent.,  —  Protestantism  about  1,700  less  and  Roman  Catholi- 


MISSIONS    TO    THE   JEWS  525 

cism  about  twenty-eight  per  cent.  What  is  loss  to  Judaism 
seems  to  be  gain  for  Christianity. 

3.  Another  most  encouraging  feature  of  the  situation  is 
found  in  the  comparatively  large  number  of  Jewish  converts 
who  become  ministers  or  missionaries.  Rev.  R.  W.  Harden 
writes :  "  It  is  asserted,  and  I  believe  with  truth,  that  as  each 
Lord's  Day  comes  round,  the  gospel  is  proclaimed  in  more  than 
600  pulpits  of  Europe  by  Jewish  lips.  Over  350  of  the  recog- 
nized ministers  of  Christ  in  Great  Britain  are  stated  to  be  He- 
brew Christians."  When  one  recalls  such  converts  from  Juda- 
ism as  Drs.  Edersheim  and  Saphir  and  Bishops  Alexander 
and  Schereshewsky,  the  value  of  the  enterprise  and  the 
hope  of  still  greater  blessing  in  the  future  become  surely 
manifest. 

IV.  Christian  Obligation.  —  i.  The  duty  resting  upon 
the  Church  in  connection  with  the  race  from  which  Christ  and 
the  great  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  were  sprung  is  often  for- 
gotten. The  Lambeth  Encyclical  Letter,  issued  in  1897  in  con- 
nection with  the  Pan-Anglican  Conference  on  Missions  to  the 
Jews,  contains  this  statement  of  obligation :  "  The  Jews  seem 
to  deserve  from  us  more  attention  than  they  have  hitherto  re- 
ceived. The  difficulties  of  the  work  of  converting  the  Jews 
are  very  great,  but  the  greatest  of  all  difficulties  springs  from 
the  indifference  of  Christians  to  the  duty  of  bringing  them  to 
Christ.  They  are  the  Lord's  own  kin,  and  He  commanded  that 
the  gospel  should  first  be  preached  to  them.  But  Christians 
generally  are  much  more  interested  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles.  The  conversion  of  the  Jews  is  also  much  hindered  by 
the  severe  persecutions  to  which  Jewish  converts  are  often  ex- 
posed from  their  own  people,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
see  to  their  protection,  if  they  are  persuaded  to  join  us.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  English-speaking  people  can  do  more 
than  any  others  in  winning  them ;  and,  although  Jewish  con- 
verts have  one  advantage  in  their  knowledge  of  their  own  peo- 
ple, yet  they  are  put  at  a  great  disadvantage  by  the  extremely 
strong  prejudice  which  the  Jews  entertain  against  those  who 


526  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

have  left  them  for  Christ.     It  seems  best  that  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles  should  be  employed  in  the  work." 

2.  The  personal  obligation  must  be  felt  even  more  strongly 
than  this  official  utterance  in  behalf  of  a  great  Church.  Bish- 
op Sumner  more  than  fifty  years  since  voiced  the  sentiment 
of  all  who  are  touched  by  Jewish  need.  "  Behold  this  nation 
to  whom  I  owe  so  much,  without  the  hope  which,  through  their 
means,  I  am  blessed  with !  Let  me  hold  up  to  them  the  Word 
of  Life,  if  God  peradventure  may  have  mercy  upon  them  and 
disperse  the  blindness  which  has  happened  unto  Israel." 


XXI 

JAPANESE   AND  CHINESE  IN   CHRISTIAN  LANDS 

PART   I. —  GENERAL 

We  have  already  met  the  Chinese  in  many  mission  coun- 
tries. Southeastern  Asia  and  the  adjacent  islands  teem  with 
them.  The  West  Indies  and  the  South  American  coasts,  the 
islands  lying  northeast  and  north  of  Madagascar  and  the 
Hawaiian  group  contain  a  goodly  number  of  these  enterprising 
men  of  Han.  As  for  the  Japanese,  they  have  thus  far  largely 
emigrated  only  to  America  and  Hawaii.  In  this  chapter  those 
natives  of  these  Empires  found  in  Christian  countries  are 
under  consideration. 

1.  Number  and  Distribution.  —  i.  As  just  stated,  the 
Japanese  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  America,  though  students  and  diplomats  are  found  the 
world  around.  According  to  the  United  States  census  of  1900, 
85,986  Japanese  resided  within  its  domains,  of  whom  61,111 
were  in  Hawaii.  Those  states  and  territories  which  contained 
more  than  100  Japanese  are  as  follows :  Alaska,  265 ;  Arizona, 
281  ;  California,  10,151  ;  Idaho,  1,291  ;  Montana,  2,z^4i  ;  Nevada, 
228;  New  York,  354;  North  Dakota,  148;  Oregon,  2,501; 
Texas,  417;  Washington,  5,617;  Wyoming,  393.  British 
Columbia  was  estimated  to  have  from  8,000  to  10,000. 

2.  Chinese  immigrants  are  found  in  small  numbers  in  Great 
Britain,  more  numerously  in  Australasia  and  Canada,  and  in 
greatest  numbers  in  the  United  States  and  its  new  insular  pos- 
sessions, where  in  1900  there  were  119,050.  Those  states  and 
territories  where  there  were  more  than  1,000  Chinese  are  as 

527 


528  GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

follows:  Alaska,  3,116;  Arizona,  1,419;  California,  45,753; 
Hawaii,  25,767;  Idaho,  1,467;  Illinois,  1,503;  Massachusetts, 
2,968;  Montana,  1,739;  Nevada,  1,352;  New  Jersey,  i.,393 ; 
New  York,  7,170;  Oregon,  10,397;  Pennsylvania,  1,927; 
Washington,  3,629.  According  to  the  1891  census,  the  Chi- 
nese in  the  Dominion  numbered  9,129,  though  they  have  in- 
creased considerably  since  then. 

II.  Social  and  Industrial  Conditions.  —  i.  The  Japa- 
nese outside  of  America  and  Hawaii  are  from  the  middle  and 
higher  classes  of  society.  They  have  left  their  home  for  the 
purpose  of  study,  and  in  order  to  master  the  arts  and  prac- 
tical sciences  of  the  West.  Comparatively  few  of  them  are 
artisans,  and  even  in  such  cases  a  trade  is  learned  only  in  order 
that  it  may  be  taught  fellow-countrymen  on  returning  to  Japan. 
The  students  in  European  universities  and  colleges  are  hoping 
to  be  educators  on  their  return,  and  therefore  are  anxious  to 
secure  a  specialist's  training,  in  addition  to  the  general  culture 
of  those  institutions. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  "  merchants,  artisans, 
tradesmen,  farmers,  laborers  and  students  make  up  the  popu- 
lations on  the  coast.  Among  the  whole  number  there  are  few 
idlers,  all  being  actively  employed  on  farms,  railroads,  or  in 
shops  and  families.  All  who  come  seek  improvement.  They 
are  hospitable  toward  new  ideas  that  may  be  practically  util- 
ized in  Japan,  and  are  therefore  eager  learners.  The  relatively 
large  number  of  students  is  surprising;  these  are  young  men 
from  the  age  of  fifteen  to  thirty,  mostly  poor  in  purse,  but 
proud  of  learning  and  willing  to  endure  great  privations  for 
the  pearl  of  knowledge.  In  California  there  are  at  least  500 
of  these,  earnestly  studying  in  our  schools,  public  and  private." 
In  Hawaii  a  vast  majority  of  the  immigrants  are  engaged  on 
the  sugar  estates  and  in  other  forms  of  manual  labor. 

2.  Unlike  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese  are  overwhelmingly 
from  the  lower  or  lowest  classes,  and  hence  are  mainly  laborers 
or  artisans.  In  Great  Britain  the  Chinaman  is  still  what  he 
is  depicted  as  being  in  Dickens'  "  Mystery  of  Edwin  Drood," 


JAPANESE   AND   CHINESE   IN    CHRISTIAN    LANDS       529 

a  devotee  of  the  opium  pipe  and  a  patient  toiler  beneath  "  the 
golden  cross  that  gleams  from  above  the  fog-smothered  dome 
of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral."  Edwin  Hodder  has  this  to  say  of 
those  in  the  South  Pacific :  "  The  Chinese  in  the  great  world 
of  Australia  form  of  themselves  almost  a  separate  community, 
which  flows  into  the  country  in  a  continuous  stream  in  spite 
of  most  stringent  government  measures  to  prevent  it,  and 
chiefly  impinges  on  its  northern  and  southeastern  shores. 
Their  gambling,  opium-smoking  and  other  evils,  contributing 
to  the  lowering  of  the  standard  of  morals,  call  loudly  for  some 
counteracting  influence,  John  Chinaman  being  regarded  as 
among  the  inferior  immigrant  races,  though  he  may  become 
merchant  or  storekeeper,  cabinetmaker,  cook  or  general  laborer. 
In  such  places  as  Cooktown,  where  they  are  plentiful,  their 
quarters  are  marked  by  fan-tan  shops,  joss-houses  and  their 
own  very  particular  eating  and  drinking." 

While  the  Dominion  has  its  thousands,  the  largest  number 
of  Chinese  found  in  Christian  lands  are  on  United  States 
soil.  Though  New  York  harbor  had  seen  a  few  early  in  the 
last  century,  the  Occidental  stream  began  to  flow  with  the 
coming  of  two  Chinese  men  and  one  woman  in  February,  1848. 
Wild  stories  of  Chin  Shan  —  Gold  Mountain  —  across  the 
Great  Eastern  Ocean,  where  the  precious  metal  could  be  picked 
up  freely  by  any  one,  were  the  alluring  voices  that  then,  and  — 
in  a  more  factual  form  —  ever  since,  have  induced  the  Chinese 
to  leave  their  ancestral  graves  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  secure  a  competency,  when,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  they 
hope  to  return  to  their  father-village  —  for  this  takes  the  place 
of  fatherland  in  Chinese  thought.  What  they  are  in  America 
is  well  known.  A  vast  majority  of  them  are  day-laborers,  or 
artisans,  with  a  few  in  institutions  of  higher  learning.  Chinese 
laundries  are  found  in  almost  every  town  of  any  importance, 
but  it  is  on  the  Pacific  Slope  that  most  of  the  gardeners,  arti- 
sans and  merchants  are  seen.  While  he  has  his  vices,  notably 
gambling,  opium-smoking  and  impurity,  the  Chinese  is  indus- 
trious almost  universally,  law-abiding  save  in  the  directions 


530  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

just  named,  and  thrifty  with  very  few  exceptions.  A  beggar 
is  practically  unknown  among  them.  As  in  China,  they  are  sat- 
urated with  the  guild  spirit,  so  that  combinations  are  omni- 
present. 

Unlike  their  countrymen  at  home,  the  Chinese  in  America 
are  free  to  indulge  in  their  penchant  for  secret  societies.  Some 
of  these  are  political,  and  aim  at  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchu 
Dynasty.  The  reformers  of  their  native  land  find  in  such 
societies  their  chief  supporters  and  sympathizers.  When  sec- 
tional or  trade  animosities  are  aroused,  they  become  a  serious 
menace  to  Chinese  society,  and  many  a  Celestial  has  fallen 
victim  to  the  dread  "  hatchet  men."  One  form  of  organization 
is  especially  to  be  deplored,  though  it  is  confined  to  San  Fran- 
cisco apparently.  Dr.  Condit  calls  it  the  Procurers'  Protective 
Association.  "  It  is  organized  for  the  sole  purpose  of  import- 
ing Chinese  slave  girls.  Its  special  work  is  the  raising  of 
money  to  meet  the  expenses  of  fighting  our  courts,  eluding  the 
vigilance  of  honest  customs  officers  and  doing  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  carrying  on  this  nefarious  traffic.  In  Canton,  Hong- 
kong and  Macao  are  houses  used  for  the  sole  purpose  of  train- 
ing up  young,  innocent  girls  for  a  life  of  shame.  None  are  too 
young  to  be  secured,  as  they  can  be  kept  in  these  nurseries  of 
hell  until  they  are  old  enough  to  be  sent  out  to  their  vile  life." 

3.  Opposition  to  these  two  races  is  confined  almost  entirely 
to  the  industrial  element,  though  even  students  and  diplomats 
among  the  Chinese  share  the  ill-will  attributable  to  their  illiter- 
ate brothers.  At  present  the  wages  of  Asiatics  are  nearly  the 
same  as  are  paid  for  similar  services  to  whites ;  but  the  Japa- 
nese and  Chinese  are  so  much  more  temperate  and  dependable 
that  they  are  a  menace  to  white  laborers  with  less  industrious 
and  frugal  habits.  It  is  mainly  for  this  reason  that  labor  organ- 
izations in  British  Columbia  and  the  Pacific  States  are  bit- 
terly opposed  to  both  races.  Other  residents  of  those  States 
are  likewise  opposed  to  them,  partly  because  of  their  lower 
grade  of  morality  and  social  life,  and  partly  because  of  the  in- 
exhaustible supply  of  Orientals  who  may  in  the  future  devour 


JAPANESE    AND    CHINESE    IN    CHRISTIAN    LANDS       53 1 

the  land,  as  the  Chinese  have  already  done  in  Southeastern 
Asia.  At  present  legal  restrictions  against  both  races  are  lim- 
iting immigration.  In  Hawaii  the  Chinese  are  the  ones  to 
suffer  from  this  discrimination.  What  most  galls  the  better 
element  in  China  and  Japan  is  the  fact  that  other  immigrants 
who  are  on  the  whole  more  inimical  to  the  best  interests  of 
America,  are  not  thus  discriminated  against.  What  will  be  the 
outcome  of  the  present  agitation  concerning  the  renewal  of 
these  treaties  in  1902  remains  to  be  seen.  The  danger  is  that 
the  less  prejudiced  authorities  at  Washington  may  yield  before 
the  sectional  interests  of  the  Pacific  Slope. 

III.  Religious  Conditions.  —  i.  The  Japanese  are  as  a 
class  less  devoted  to  their  religion  than  the  masses  of  their 
countrymen  at  home.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  leaders  among  them  are  students,  who  are  openly 
sceptical  concerning  their  old  religions,  or  else  are  friendly 
to  the  new  light  of  Christian  lands.  These  facts,  together  with 
the  small  number  in  a  given  locality,  may  account  for  the  very 
few  temples  found  in  America. 

2.  The  Chinese,  on  the  contrary,  are  apparently  more  re- 
ligious in  those  lands  where  wages  are  good  than  at  home. 
The  sumptuous  joss-houses  of  Australian  and  American  cities 
would  give  visitors  an  idea  that  in  China  idolatry  still  was 
active  and  lavish  in  gifts.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  such  large  ex- 
penditure for  temples  and  idols  is  rare  there,  and  is  possible 
here  because  money  is  plentiful  and  every  opportunity  of  es- 
tablishing places  of  concourse,  reminding  them  of  home,  is 
embraced.  In  San  Francisco  alone  there  are  eighteen  tem- 
ples, "  the  Six  Companies  each  having  one.  The  newest, 
largest  and  finest  is  that  of  the  Neng  Yeung  Company,  being 
Company  house  and  temple  combined.  The  principal  idol  is 
a  great,  red-faced,  hideously  grotesque  Joss,  dressed  in  gaudy 
robes,  called  Kwan  Tai,  God  of  War.  Kwan  Tai  in  this  tem- 
ple is  very  popular,  as  he  is  supposed  to  have  much  power 
in  bestowing  upon  his  devotees  bravery,  courage  and  success 
in  their  undertakings." 


532  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


PART  II.  —  MISSIONARY 

I.  Missionary  Effort  for  the  Japanese.  —  This  work 
is  of  recent  origin ;  though  individuals,  especially  the  early 
students  like  Joseph  Neesima,  have  been  labored  for  from  the 
time  of  their  first  advent  on  Christian  shores.  The  conversion 
of  Kamichi  Miyama,  who  reached  San  Francisco  in  1877,  and 
his  baptism  and  that  of  two  fellow-countrymen  were  the  begin- 
ning of  Japanese  missions  on  an  organized  plan. 

1.  The  leading  societies  engaged  in  this  work  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  are  those  of  the  Presbyterians,  Methodists, 
Baptists  and  Episcopalians,  and  the  cities  of  San  Francisco, 
Tacoma,  Seattle  and  Salinas,  in  the  United  States,  and  Vic- 
toria, Vancouver,  Union  and  Eraser  River,  in  British  Colum- 
bia, are  the  principal  centers  of  mission  activity.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  probably  the  first  Japanese  church  in  Amer- 
ica was  not  erected  until  1894,  the  present  condition  of  activity 
is  encouraging.  In  the  Hawaiian  Islands  the  Hawaiian  Evan- 
gelical Association  and  the  American  Board  are  cooperating 
in  the  work  for  the  60,000  Japanese  within  their  bounds.  The 
Methodists  are  likewise  doing  something  for  these  people. 

2.  The  methods  employed  on  the  Islands  are  suited  to  the 
roving  character  of  Japanese  laborers,  who  do  not  remain 
long  enough  in  one  place  to  make  church  methods  as  helpful 
as  they  otherwise  would  be.  Evangelists  and  a  monthly  news- 
paper, "  The  Light,"  are  most  used.  The  American  Board  has 
just  appointed  a  former  member  of  its  Japan  force  to  proceed 
to  the  districts  in  Japan  whence  the  emigrants  chiefly  go,  and 
cultivate  the  friendship  of  their  families,  thus  bringing  with 
him  to  the  Hawaiian  Japanese  home  news  and  a  living  bond  of 
interest.  A  similar  advantage  is  derived  from  the  temporary 
visits  of  missionaries  in  Japan  who  stop  at  the  Islands  en 
route. 

For  the  children  education  is  found  useful.  In  the  morning 
they  attend  the  public  schools,  where  they  learn  English,     In 


JAPANESE   AND   CHINESE   IN    CHRISTIAN   LANDS      533 

the  afternoon  these  who  are  in  the  two  boarding-schools  receive 
instruction  in  the  Japanese  language,  and  enjoy  all  the  bene- 
fits of  a  Christian  home.  Another  somewhat  unusual  form 
of  missionary  effort  "  indicates  the  self-helpful  and  beneficent 
spirit  which  is  the  outcome  of  Christian  influence,  namely,  the 
cooking-school,  taught  by  Mr.  Ishimura,  from  which  have 
graduated  in  the  past  few  years  hundreds  of  the  young  men 
who  may  be  met  in  very  many  of  the  best  families  of  our  city 
(Honolulu).  Many  of  these  young  men,  now  in  the  humble 
positions  of  cook,  table-boy  or  garden-boy,  are  youths  of  noble 
promise  and  high  ambition.  Some  of  them  may  yet  graduate 
from  the  highest  colleges  and  universities  of  Christendom  and 
come  to  fill  positions  of  great  responsibility  and  trust ;  there- 
fore let  us  take  heed  that  we  despise  not  one  of  these  little 
ones.  If  these  now  receptive  and  keenly  observant  youths 
find  in  the  families  of  their  employers  a  true  Christian  spirit, 
they  are  sure  to  be  influenced  by  it." 

3.  In  America  the  work  was  first  conducted  in  connection 
with  that  for  the  Chinese.  Later  it  has  been  found  more 
profitable  to  regard  racial  differences,  and  hence  missions  are 
carried  on  for  each  race  separately.  As  would  be  expected 
by  those  who  know  the  Japanese,  most  of  the  work  is  done 
by  themselves,  and  comparatively  little  by  the  missionary. 
Evangelistic  effort  is  fundamental,  and  in  some  cases  the 
revival  spirit  is  quite  marked.  Dr.  Harris  describes  an  experi- 
ence that  has  been  practically  repeated  in  other  places.  "  One 
young  man,  deeply  convicted  of  unbelief,  was  led  by  the  Spirit 
apart,  and  for  many  days  he  prayed,  fasted  and  searched  the 
Scriptures.  Finally  he  emerged,  filled  with  new  life  and  sur- 
charged with  the  message  of  salvation,  and  began  to  witness 
and  exhort  with  startling  earnestness.  Conviction  of  sin,  the 
need  of  forgiveness  and  the  anointing  of  the  Spirit  came  upon 
many.  For  days  and  weeks  this  went  on,  culminating  in  a  re- 
generated. Spirit-filled  church,  ready  for  the  service  of  the 
Lord.  It  pleased  God  to  call  many  to  be  His  witnesses  and 
evangelists.     Without  purse,  they  went  forth  with  tracts  and 


534  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Bibles,  and  told  their  countrymen  what  God  had  done  for 
them.  Sin  and  salvation  were  the  themes  illustrated  by  their 
own  experience,  and  the  Lord  confirmed  their  words  and 
deeds  with  many  signs.  Scores  were  converted  and  new  mis- 
sions were  formed." 

Where  numbers  of  Japanese  are  present  in  the  same  town, 
it  has  been  found  most  profitable  to  make  each  mission  a 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  with  some  home  features 
superadded.  "  A  building  is  used  for  dormitory,  restaurant, 
school-room,  religious  services,  social  hall,  reading-room, 
trunk-rooms,  etc."  An  Anglo-Japanese  school,  open  both  day 
and  evening,  is  sometimes  an  adjunct  of  a  mission  to  the 
Japanese. 

4.  Results  of  this  form  of  effort,  both  in  America  and 
Hawaii,  are  very  much  like  those  reported  by  Dr.  Harris  con- 
cerning the  Methodist  work  for  the  Japanese.  "  The  regener- 
ating influences  of  these  missions  upon  the  dwellers  on  the 
Coast  are  direct  and  very  salutary ;  and  upon  Japan,  though  in- 
direct, they  are  nevertheless  very  helpful.  Many  Japanese  who 
have  come  to  the  Coast  as  students  and  traders  have,  upon 
their  return  to  Japan,  admirably  succeeded  in  many  callings. 
Among  these  are  a  number  of  Christian  men.  I  can  count 
thirty  men,  pastors,  teachers  and  evangelists,  who  have  been 
converted  here,  and  are  now  potent  factors  in  the  churches  in 
Japan.  It  is  an  inspiring  truth  that  not  only  every  steamer 
carries  native  Japanese  Christians  from  Victoria,  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Seattle,  but  that  on  these  same  vessels  are  hundreds 
of  letters  from  Christians,  laden  with  love-messages  and  fra- 
grant with  prayer  for  the  loved  ones  at  home.  Whole  families 
have  thus  been  changed  into  Christian  households  by  these 
loving  epistles." 

n.  Missions  Among  the  Chinese.  —  i.  The  principal 
societies  engaged  are  the  following:  In  Australasia:  Aus- 
tralasian Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society,  4  sta- 
tions ;  New  South  Wales  Church  Missionary  Associa- 
tion,  I   station;    Presbyterian  Church  of  New  South  Wales, 


JAPANESE    AND    CHINESE    IN    CHRISTIAN    LANDS       535 

I  Station;  Presbyterian  Women's  Missionary  Union  of  Vic- 
toria, I  station ;  Victoria  Church  Missionary  Association,  3 
stations;  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Otago  and  Southland, 
I  station.  Hawaiian  Islands:  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion, 2  stations.  Canada:  Foreign  Mission  Committee  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada,  4  stations ;  Missionary  Society 
of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada,  7  stations ;  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  i  station ;  Woman's  Missionary 
Society  of  the  Methodist  Church,  Canada,  i  station.  United 
States:  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  8  stations; 
American  Missionary  Association,  21  stations;  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  2  stations ;  Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Missions, 
I  station ;  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church, 2  stations;  Peniel  Missionary  Society,  i  station;  Synod 
of  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  North  America,  i  sta- 
tion ;  Women's  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  2  stations ;  Ply- 
mouth Brethren,  i  station. 

2.  In  Australia  the  Chinese  seem  to  be' more  migratory  than 
in  the  large  American  centers  of  Chinese  life.  As  a  conse- 
quence the  work  for  them  is  more  discouraging  than  there. 
Apparently  more  volunteers  for  night-school  and  other  service 
have  offered  themselves  than  in  America.  One  very  profitable 
feature  of  the  Presbyterian  Women's  work  is  the  care  for  the 
children  and  women  of  the  Chinese  colony.  The  Victoria 
Church  Missionary  Association  is  likewise  emphasizing  this 
feature.  Like  other  fields  in  which  the  Chinese  are  compara- 
tively few  and  much  scattered,  Australian  efforts  for  their 
evangelization  are  not  sufficiently  well  supported. 

3.  In  the  Haivaiian  Islands  the  labors  of  the  missionaries 
are  well  supplemented  by  services  freely  rendered  by  pastors 
in  Hawaiian  churches  and  by  Chinese  assistants.  Some  of  the 
workers,  both  foreigners  and  natives,  have  gained  experience 
in  China,  and  one  helper  can  preach  very  fluently  in  three  dia- 
lects. All  varieties  of  church  activity  are  here  found,  with  the 
educational  work  of  the  mission  field  besides.     This  ranges 


536  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

from  very  successful  kindergarten  work  to  the  advanced 
studies  of  Mills  Institute.  In  the  latter  seventy  students  were 
gaining  an  education  last  year,  and  secured  an  excellent  prep- 
aration for  the  new  duties  that  may  await  them  on  returning 
to  their  native  land.  The  generation  that  is  coming  up  under 
these  better  influences  is  far  stronger  than  were  the  men 
reached  years  ago,  largely  because  of  the  labors  of  the  mis- 
sionaries. 

4.  The  United  States  and  Canada  are  the  principal  fields  of 
labor  for  the  Chinese  immigrants.  Mitch  of  it  is  voluntary  and 
connected  with  no  society.  Laundrymen  are  ubiquitous,  and 
in  towns  and  villages  where  a  very  few  only  are  found,  the 
local  churches  usually  care  for  their  religious  needs.  In  many 
large  cities,  especially  in  the  East,  the  churches  are  doing  all 
that  is  attempted  for  them.  Methods  here  are  almost  wholly 
confined  to  those  of  the  Sunday-school  and  night-school. 
Learning  English  is,  of  course,  the  main  desire  of  the  Chinese, 
and  in  order  to  secure  this  knowledge,  they  will  listen  to  the 
Christian  instruction  that  accompanies  it.  Very  rarely  are 
these  schools  adapted  to  the  most  speedy  acquisition  of  Eng- 
lish and  the  intelligent  understanding  of  Christianity.  This  is 
the  result  of  having  no  workers  who  know  either  the  Chinese 
language  or  Chinese  customs.  Secret  society  feuds  often  break 
up  a  school  laboriously  established,  to  the  utter  mystification  of 
teachers  and  superintendants.  Many  teachers  who  earnestly 
desire  to  aid  the  Chinese,  order  from  China  books  in  the  classi- 
cal tongue,  or  else  in  the  Mandarin,  which  very  few  laundry- 
men  could  understand  even  if  they  could  freely  read  it.  Scan- 
dal is  caused  to  the  more  respectable  Chinese  by  the  great  free- 
dom noted  between  the  teachers,  most  of  whom  are  young 
women,  and  the  pupils,  which  though  not  very  objectionable 
in  America,  is  abhorrent  to  all  Chinese  ideas  of  etiquette.  Yet 
even  this  unintelligent  work  is  so  consecrated  and  faithful 
that  it  has  resulted  in  much  good  both  to  the  Chinese  and  their 
friends  at  home. 

The  work  of  the  missionary  societies  is  wholly  different,  and 


JAPANESE    AND    CHINESE    IN    CHRISTIAN    LANDS       537 

is  carried  on  usually  with  the  wisdom  begotten  of  experience 
in  China,  some  of  it  by  missionaries  from  that  land.  Begin- 
ning in  1852,  under  Dr.  Speer,  of  the  Presbyterian  Board, 
North,  and  with  the  first  church  of  four  members  established 
the  following  year,  organized  efforts  for  the  Chinese  are  being 
successfully  conducted  in  many  large  cities,  mostly  on  the 
Pacific  Slope.  The  Sunday-school,  followed  by  the  day  secular 
school,  held  at  night  usually,  were  the  initial  steps.  Converts 
increasing,  the  usual  agencies  of  the  church  were  set  in  mo- 
tion, and  they  continue  to  be  the  main  reliance.  Higher  educa- 
tion is  not  demanded  of  the  societies,  as  secondary  schools  and 
colleges  abound  on  every  hand. 

Even  more  than  among  the  Japanese  is  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  appreciated  by  the  Chinese.  The  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Presbyterian  Mission  in  San  Francisco,  the 
mother  of  them  all,  has  enrolled  more  than  a  thousand  mem- 
bers, and  from  it  have  gone  out  branch  societies  into  twelve 
different  States,  a  total  of  thirty.  "  The  Association  com- 
bines social  and  religious  elements,  and  is  composed  of  both 
active  and  associate  members.  Any  person  of  good  moral 
character,  willing  to  renounce  idolatry,  to  acknowledge  the 
fundamental  truths  of  Christianity  and  desiring  to  associate 
with  Christians  may  become  an  associate  member.  The  Asso- 
ciation by  this  broad  policy  has  ever  been  helpful  in  leading 
the  way  out  of  heathenism  towards  the  religion  of  Jesus  and 
into  the  Church  of  Christ.  Those  who  enter  it  become  learners 
in  the  truth,  and  most  of  them  soon  become  ready  to  confess 
Christ  as  their  Saviour  by  being  baptized  into  His  name."  A 
paragraph  from  the  Preamble  of  the  largest  Association  reads : 
"  We  gather  ourselves  together  and  organize  this  Association 
that  we  might  inform  each  other  about  the  true  doctrine,  es- 
tablish ourselves  to  act  according  to  the  truth  and  not  fall  into 
crooked  ways ;  but  be  loyal  to  our  superiors,  dutiful  to  our 
parents  and  walk  in  the  right  path.  Though  it  is  not  easy  to  do 
this,  yet  as  young  men,  we  ought  to  learn.  For  mutual  aid 
we  ought  to  be  joined  together  as  loving  friends,  so  as  to  ex- 


538  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

hort  each  other  more  earnestly  and  pohsh  each  other  continu- 
ally by  contact.  This  is  what  we  deeply  expect  by  this  Associa- 
tion." The  liability  to  merge  the  organization  into  another 
form  of  Chinese  guild  has  to  be  remembered,  but  if  guarded 
against,  the  Association  is  always  very  helpful. 

On  the  Pacific  Slope  the  societies  find  an  avenue  of  great 
usefulness  in  caring  for  the  children  of  these  immigrants,  of 
whom  last  year  there  were  2,000  of  school  age,  and  especially 
in  the  establishment  of  homes  for  the  unfortunate  slave  girls 
allured  to  this  country  for  vicious  ends.  Such  women  as  Miss 
Culbertson  are  worthy  of  highest  praise.  "  At  the  close  of  her 
eighteen  years  of  service,  five  hundred  had  found  refuge  with- 
in the  walls  of  the  Occidental  Woman's  Board  Home,  of  whom 
the  larger  part  were  rescued  by  her  personal  efforts.  A  goodly 
number  of  these  have  been  converted,  the  names  of  eighty 
being  found  on  the  church  roll.  Of  these  many  have  married 
Christian  men  and  have  gone  out  to  set  up  Christian  homes 
for  themselves." 

The  press  is  useful  in  furthering  the  enterprise.  While 
very  few  understand  much  English,  in  every  group  of  Chinese 
are  one  or  more  persons  who  can  read,  and  these  become  the 
teachers  of  their  countrymen,  in  a  sense.  Bilingual  periodicals 
are  useful,  and  publications  in  Cantonese  of  the  American 
Tract  Society,  or  of  Chinese  Societies,  are  most  valuable  aids 
in  Chinese  mission  work. 

Reports  of  the  societies  during  the  past  two  years  indicate  a 
difficulty  in  connection  zvith  reform  agitation.  Thus  the 
Canadian  Presbyterians  said  in  1900 :  "  Bright  hopes  were 
blighted  by  the  organization  of  a  new  society  amongst  the 
Chinese  called  '  The  Emperor  Protective  Society.'  It  spread 
like  wildfire  all  over  the  continent,  reaching  every  coterie  of 
Chinese  and  inflaming  their  enthusiasm  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Chinese  Emperor  and  the  introduction  of  sweeping  reforms 
in  China,  as  well  as  restoring  Confucianism  and  ancestral  wor- 
ship to  their  supremacy  as  the  religion  of  the  Empire.  The 
society  has  made  a  radical  departure  in  holding  meetings  every 


JAPANESE   AND    CHINESE   IN    CHFtSTIAN    LANDS      539 

Sabbath  day  in  halls  with  pulpit  and  platform,  with  patriotic 
songs  and  addresses."  In  San  Francisco,  according  to  Dr. 
Condit,  the  society  has  5,000  members,  while  practically  all 
the  Chinese  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  belong  to  it.  Yet  the 
Christian  Chinese  of  San  Francisco  said  in  a  series  of  resolu- 
tions sent  to  the  late  President  McKinley :  "  We  deplore  the 
Boxer  insurrection  in  North  China.  The  Chinese  now  resi- 
dent in  the  United  States'  have  no  sympathy  whatever  with  this 
wild,  murderous  horde  of  misguided  Chinese.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  Chinese  residing  in  this  country  come 
from  the  Kwang-tung  province,  of  which  Canton  is  the  capital. 
Not  only  is  there  but  little  anti-foreign  feeling  in  this  part  of 
China,  but  a  growing  spirit  of  friendliness."  There  is  little 
doubt  but  that  such  Christians,  while  desirous  of  seeing  the 
reforms  for  which  their  head,  K'ang  Yii-wei  stands  realized, 
are  yet  anxious  to  "  carry  with  them  the  spirit  of  truth  "  when 
they  return,  and  with  that  as  a  weapon,  fight  for  their  country's 
disenthrallment. 

5.  The  results  of  the  work  for  Chinese  are  much  like  those 
named  in  connection  with  the  Japanese.  Missionaries  of  all 
societies  laboring  among  them  testify  to  consistent  lives  lived 
in  the  midst  of  great  temptation,  and  of  heroic  endurance  of 
persecution,  especially  on  the  part  of  those  Christians  who  have 
aided  the  missionaries  in  their  campaign  against  gambling  and 
the  ruin  of  Chinese  girls.  In  benevolence  they  are  examples  to 
other  Christians,  and  they  do  not  forget  their  country  when 
exiled  from  it.  Such  churches  as  that  at  Sun  Neng,  near  Can- 
ton, are  monuments  to  their  liberality.  They  also  prove  very 
helpful  to  missionaries  working  in  South  China  when  they 
return.  Thus  Rev.  Mr.  Fulton  reports  "  that  of  the  twenty^ 
five  native  helpers  who  have  worked  with  him  in  China,  twenty 
have  been  connected  with  Chinese  Sunday-schools  in  America ; 
and  he  further  says  that  through  their  united  labor  he  has, 
during  the  last  mission  year,  baptized  nearly  400  converts  in 
these  districts." 

Some  statistics  concerning  the  Chinese  of  the  United  States, 


540  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

given  by  Dr.  Condit  in  1900,  understate  the  facts,  rather  than 
exaggerate  them.  A  few  of  these  items  are  as  follows :  Whole 
number  of  Chinese  Christians  in  the  United  States  from  the 
beginning,  4,000;  present  number  of  Christian  Chinese  of  all 
denominations,  1,600;  number  of  evening  schools,  50,  with  an 
annual  attendance  of  3,700 ;  number  of  Chinese  Sunday-schools, 
75,  with  an  attendance  of  2,500;  whole  number  of  Chinese 
born  in  the  United  States,  3,000;  number  of  Chinese  children 
in  public  and  mission  schools,  500;  number  of  lay  preachers 
converted  in  the  United  States  who  have  labored  both  here 
and  in  China,  60,  of  whom  12  were  ordained ;  amount  given 
by  the  Chinese  in  the  United  States  for  building  chapels  and 
for  other  Christan  work  in  their  native  land,  $60,000,  silver. 

III.  Our  Duty.  —  The  duty  of  doing  more  for  the  salva- 
tion of  representatives  of  these  races  who  are  living  in  the 
midst  of  Christian  communites  is  manifest.  While  it  is  far 
more  difficult  to  know  intimately  the  real  life  of  the  convert, 
than  in  China  or  Japan,  where  native  helpers  are  free  to  visit 
their  homes,  it  is  easier  for  them  to  live  a  Christian  life  with 
all  the  helps  of  friendly  Christians,  than  in  idolatrous  China 
or  Japan,  when  surrounded  with  a  host  of  obstructive  rela- 
tives. Persons  who  criticise  the  foreign  missionary  societies 
for  sending  missionaries  to  China  and  Japan  while  there  are 
"  heathen  enough  at  our  doors,"  should  remember  what  the 
societies  are  already  doing  for  these  Orientals ;  and  they  ought 
to  rally  to  the  support  of  the  enterprise,  both  by  liberal  contri- 
butions and  by  personal  participation  in  some  of  the  work, 
which  is  possible  in  most  large  cities  and  in  many  small  towns. 
In  China  especially,  greater  pains  should  be  taken  to  provide 
for  the  Christian  nurture  of  immigrants  returning  from  Aus- 
tralia and  America.  Mr.  Selby  in  "  Chinamen  at  Home,"  gives 
some  very  vivid  pictures  illustrating  this  need,  and  also  shows 
from  his  own  experience  how  difficult  a  task  it  is.  Yet  the 
results  attained  by  the  American  Board's  Hongkong  Mission, 
which  devotes  much  attention  to  that  sort  of  efforts,  prove  the 
value  of  this  conserving  measure. 


The  Final  Outcome 

As  THE  reader  has  passed  in  imagination  from  land  to  land 
and  glanced  hastily  at  some  present  conditions  and  achieve- 
ments of  the  missonary  enterprise,  he  must  have  been  im- 
pressed with  the  extent  of  the  work,  and  at  the  same  time  with 
its  utter  inadequacy  to  meet  the  colossal  needs  of  a  thousand 
millions  of  fellow  mortals,  children  of  the  same  Father,  though 
they  know  Him  not.  Their  rescue  and  upbuilding  in  all  that 
makes  life  worth  living  and  death  not  a  dying,  should  be  a 
foremost  concern  of  every  one  who  has  given  allegiance  to  the 
great  Captain,  whose  marching  orders  are  as  plain  as  they  are 
imperative,  "  Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and  preach  the  gospel 
to  the  whole  creation." 

Even  if  the  residual  impression  is  a  combination  of  dismay 
and  hope  because  of  the  enormity  of  the  enterprise  and  the 
manifest  presence  of  God  in  the  work,  the  urgency  of  the  need 
of  all  nations  should  prompt  to  immediate  response.  The 
Chinese  character  for  world  and  for  generation  is  made  up  of 
three  tens.  While  Occidentals  speak  of  a  generation  as  being 
thirty-three  years  in  duration,  this  linguistic  fossil  of  past 
millenniums  asserts  that  in  three  brief  decades  the  Chinese 
race  comes  to  birth,  lives  its  cheerless  life  and  crumbles  into 
dust.  Is  not  this  a  picture  of  the  non-Christian  world  also? 
Christians  may  not  dally  when  such  momentous  interests  are 
at  stake  —  when  a  thousand  million  souls,  each  of  them  valued 
at  more  than  a  world  by  our  Lord,  are  hanging  in  the  balance. 
The  Church  of  God  may  sleep  on  for  thirty  years  more ;  but 
when  it  awakes  the  thousand  million  will  have  passed  beyond 
her  power  to  bless  them.  If  the  non-Christian  nations  are  not 
evangelized  in  our  generation,  then  the  Church  can  never  per- 
form her  duty  to  the  two-thirds  of  the  human  race  to  which 
she  has  been  commanded  to  minister. 

That  believers  the  world  around  will  be  shown  their  duty 
is  becoming  more  and  more  evident,  and  it  has  been  the  object 

541 


542  GEOGRAPHY   OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

of  this  volume  to  aid  in  that  direction.  Present  accompHsh- 
ment  is  a  glorious  pledge  of  larger  achievements  in  the  future. 
St.  Sophia,  in  Constantinople,  furnishes,  perhaps,  the  best 
illustration  of  what  the  Christian  may  surely  expect.  "  When 
Constantine,  1,500  years  ago,  was  marking  out  lines  of  forti- 
fication for  his  new  capital,"  writes  Dr.  Dwight,  "  some  of  his 
courtiers,  surprised  at  the  greatness  of  the  space,  asked, 
'  How  far  are  you  going  to  carry  your  lines  ?  '  '  Until  He  stops 
who  goes  before  me,'  was  the  answer  of  the  Emperor.  He 
deemed  the  city  to  belong  to  Jesus  Christ,  a  token  of  the  tri- 
umph of  Jesus  Christ  over  the  heathen  world."  And  to  ob- 
jectify this  thought,  Justinian,  in  reconstructing  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Sophia,  brought  to  its  precincts  the  finest  marbles  and 
most  majestic  columns  from  the  temples  of  Jupiter  and  Venus, 
of  Diana  and  Baal  and  Astarte,  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  from  all  the 
neighboring  lands.  The  traveler  who  visits  this  majestic  fane, 
now  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  may  see  in  the  center  of  the  half- 
dome  of  the  apse  what  to  the  careless  eye  is  only  a  modern 
arabesque  painted  on  a  ground  of  gold.  "  A  careful  scrutiny," 
says  Dr.  Dwight,  "  will  discover  underneath  the  arabesque  of 
the  Moslems  and  forming  a  richer  and  more  brilliant  portion 
of  the  shining  groundwork,  the  outlines  of  a  figure  of  heroic 
size,  with  flowing  robes,  with  arms  outstretched  and  with  a 
halo  crowning  the  head.  The  figure  is  a  mosaic  worked  into  the 
substance  of  the  wall  as  a  leading  feature  in  the  ancient  deco- 
ration of  the  church.  The  Mohammedan  conquerors,  instead 
of  destroying  the  figure,  merely  hid  it  from  the  eyes  of  their 
own  people  by  overlaying  it  with  gold.  That  figure,  which 
could  not  be  hid  by  the  gold-leaf  which  veils  it,  is  the  figure  of 
Jesus  Christ." 

This  prophecy  in  marble  and  mosaic  and  gold  is  to-day  being 
fulfilled.  Though  heathen  altars  still  remain,  many  redeemed 
shrines  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  every  clime  are  far  more  precious 
trophies  of  our  Lord's  world-wide  campaign  than  despoiled 
temples  of  the  old  Roman  world.  The  veiled  Christ,  whom  the 
clearest  and  most  spiritual  intellects  of  heathen,  Mohammedan 


THE  FINAL  OUTCOME  543 

and  pagan  lands  have  seen  as  in  a  glass  darkly,  has  revealed 
Himself  in  all  His  heroic  dimensions  and  heavenly  loveliness 
to  elect  souls  in  every  nation.  The  day  of  His  enthronement 
as  Lord  of  All  awaits  the  will  of  His  blood-bought  Church. 
That  the  day  will  eventually  come  is  as  sure  as  His  unfailing 
Word. 

"  He  shall  have  dominion  also  from  sea  to  sea, 

And  from  the  River  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth. 
They  that  dwell  in  the  wilderness  shall  bow  before  Him ; 
And  His  enemies  shall  lick  the  dust. 

"The  kings  of  Tarshish  and  of  the  isles  shall  bring  presents: 
The  kings  of  Sheba  and  Seba  shall  offer  gifts. 
Yea,  all  kings  shall  fall  down  before  Him: 
All  nations  shall  serve  Him." 


APPENDIX  A 


MISSIONARY    CONTRIBUTORS    TO    THIS    WORK 

Part  II  of  the  various  chapters  of  this  vohime  is  largely  based  upon  information 
very  kindly  furnished  the  author  by  representatives  of  the  leading  missionary  societies 
in  the  great  mission  fields  of  the  world.  Without  this  first-hand  information  so  cheer- 
fully furnished  by  experienced  men  and  women  on  the  field,  the  volume  would  lack  much 
of  the  trustworthiness  which  it  now  possesses.  The  preference  of  contributors  is  fol- 
lowed in  the  order  of  initials  of  degrees  and  in  orthography  of  place  names. 

Persons  before  whose  names  is  an  asterisk   (*)    have  recently  died. 

Alexander,  Rev.  J.  R.,  D.D.,  Assiut,  Egypt. 
Amerman,  Rev.  Jas.  L.,  D.D.,  (formerly)  Tokyo,  Japan. 
Andrew,  Rev.  Adam,  Chingleput,  South  India. 
Arms,  Rev.  Goodsil  F.,  A.M.,  Concepcion,  Chile. 
Avison,  Oliver  R.,  M.D.,  Seoul,  Korea. 

Bagby,  Rev.  William  Buck,  A.M.,  D.D.,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil. 
Baldwin,  Mrs.  S.  L.,  (formerly)  Foochow,  China. 
Balle,  Frederik,  Greenland. 
Baudert,  Samuel,  Baziya,  South  Africa. 
Beatty,  Rev.  William,  D.D.,  Ahmedabad,  India. 
Beck,  Rev.  Will  M.,  Monrovia,  Africa. 
Bender,   Robert  Hermann,   San   Salvador,   Salvador. 
Bernard,  Miss  L.  C,  M.D.,  Poona,  India. 
Binford,  Rev.  Gurney,  Tokyo,  Japan. 
Bishop,  A.  E.,  Guatemala  City,  Central  America. 
Blackett,  Rev.  Arthur  Russell,  B.A.,  Kerman,  Persia. 
Bleazard,  Rev.  Colin,  Satupaitea,  Savaii,  Samoa. 
Booth-Tucker,  Commander  Frederick  de  L.,  India. 
Brander,  Thomas  Lawrie,  M.D.,  Chinchou,  Manchuria,  N.  China. 
Brewster,  Rev.  William  N.,  B.A.,  B.D.,  Hinghua,  China. 
Bromilow,  Rev.  W.  E.,  Dobu,  British  New  Guinea. 
Brown,  Rev.  Hubert  W.,  B.A.,  M.A.,  Mexico  City,  Mexico. 
Brown,  Rev.  John  Gilbert,  B.A.,  Vuyyuru,  India. 
Bryan,  Rev.  Robert  Thomas,  D.D.,  Shanghai,  China. 
Bunker,  Rev.  A.,  D.D.,  Toungoo,  Burma. 
Butchart,  Jas.,  M.D.,  Lu  Cheo  Fu,  China. 
Butler,  Rev.  Jno.  W.,  D.D.,  Mexico  City,  Mexico. 
Caldwell,  J.  E.,  B.Ph.,  M.D.,  Rarotonga,  Cook  Islands. 
545 


54^  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Cameron,  Miss  Margaret  Anne,  Kotakota,  British  Central  Africa. 

Campbell,  Rev.  David  Newton  E.,  B.S.,  M.D.,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Cuba. 

Camphor,  Alexander  P.,  Monrovia,  Africa. 

Carter,  Rev.  David  Wendel,  M.A.,  Mexico  City,  Mexico. 

Chastain,  Rev.  James  Garvin,  D.D.,  Morelia,  Mexico. 

Clark,  Miss  Esther  D.,  Santiago,  Dominican  Republic,  W.  I. 

Collins,  Rev.  Chas.  M.,  Aguascalientes,  Mexico. 

Cook-Jalabert,  J.  P.,  II  Mathen  par  El  'Kseur,  Algeria. 

Cooper,  Rev.  A.  Willard,  Rajaburee,  Siam. 

Craver,  Rev.  Samuel  P.,  D.D.,  Asuncion,  Paraguay. 

Dauble,  G.,  Keta,  West  Africa. 

Dearing,  Rev.  John  L.,  Yokohama,  Japan. 

Drees,  Rev.  Charles  W.,  D.D.,  Buenos  Aires,  Argentine  Republic. 

Eve,  Rev.  Joseph  Ernest,  Mpotula,  South  Africa. 

Ewing,  Rev.  Arthur  H.,  M.A.,  Lodiana,  India. 

Fagg,  Rev.  John  G.,  Amoy,  China. 

Fairbank,  Rev.  Henry,  Vadala,  India. 

Folke,  Rev.  Eric,  Uin-ch'eng,  China. 

Forney,  Elder  D.  L.,  Novsari,  India. 

Fowle,  Rev.  James  Luther,  A.M.,  Cesarea,  Turkey  in  Asia. 

Frederickson,  Rev.  J.  F.,  Ghoom,  India. 

Freeman,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Laos. 

Gammon,  Rev.  Sam.  R.,  Lavras,  Brazil. 

Geddes,  Rev.  Alexander  W.,  Panama,  Colombia. 

*Gifford,  Rev.  Daniel  L.,  Seoul,  Korea. 

Goldsack,  Rev.  William,  Laridpur,  India. 

Grandjean,  A.,  Delagoa  Bay,  East  Africa. 

Graves,  Rev.  Rosewell  Hobart,  M.D.,  D.D.,  Canton,  China. 

Graybill,  Rev.  A.  T.,  Linares,   Mexico. 

Griffin,  Archdeacon  James  Edward,  Mbweni,  Zanzibar. 

Griffiths,  Miss  Mary  Bell,  Yokohama,  Japan. 

Grinnan,  Rev.  R.  B.,  D.D.,  Japan. 

Hail,  Rev.  Alexander  Durham,  D.D.,  Osaka,  Japan. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  Beautyre  Province,  British  Central  Africa. 

Haviland,  Mrs.  Emma  Hillmon,  Inhambane,  S.  E.  Africa. 

Haymaker,  Rev.  Edward  McElwain,  Guatemala,  C.  A. 

Heaney,  Edward,  Qua  Ibo,  W.  C.  Africa. 

Hearne,  Edward  W.,  Manila,  P.  I. 

Heinrichs,  J.,  Ramapatam,  India. 

Henderson,   Rev.  James,  M.A.,  Lake   Nyassa,   British  Central  Africa. 

Hey,   Rev.   N.,   Mapoon   Station,   Australia. 

Howard,  Rev.  Alfred  Taylor,  B.A.,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Huffman,  Rev.  Nathan  H.,  A.M.,  Ponce,  Porto  Rico. 


APPENDIX    A  547 

Jalla,  Rev.  Louis,  Barotseland,  South  Africa. 

Jessup,  Rev.  Henry  H.,  D.D.,  Beirut,  Syria. 

Jones,  Miss  Anna,  Yeotmal,  India. 

Joseph,  Oscar  L.,  Ceylon. 

Keirn,  Rev.  G.  I.,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Kelsey,  Rev.  Wm.  Irving,  Ph.B.,  C.  Victoria  Tamaulipas,  Mexico. 

Kidd,  Dudley,  Johannesburg  and  Capetown,  South  Africa. 

King,  Rev.  John  R.,  B.A.,  Freetown,  West  Africa. 

Kogel,  Rev.  Hinrich  August,  Greenland. 

Kranz,  Rev.  Paul,  Shanghai,  China. 

Lee,  Rev.  Lucius  O.,  D.D.,  Marash,  Turkey. 

Lester,  Rev.  William  H.,  Jr.,  Santiago,  Chile. 

Little,  Thomas,  Brumana,  Syria. 

Lowry,  Rev.  Hiram  H.,  D.D.,  Peking,  China. 

Loyd,  Miss  Mary  De  Forest,  Mexico  City,  Mexico. 

McCollum,  Rev.  John  William,  Fukuoka,  Japan. 

McConnell,  Wm.  W.,  Cartago,  Costa  Rica,  Central  America. 

McCormick,  Rev.  H.  P.,  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  and  Mexico  City. 

MacNair,  Rev.  Theodore  M.,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Martin,  Rev.  Aug.,  Bluefields,  Central  America. 

Martin,  Rev.  John  Howard,  Punjab,  British  India. 

Martin,  Z.  L.,  Jamaica,  W.  I. 

Marx,  Rev.  B.,  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa. 

Matson,  Rev.  P.,  Fancheng,  China. 

Mead,  Cecil  Silas,  M.B.,  Ch.B.,  B.A.,  Faridpur,  India. 

Michelsen,  Rev.  Oscar,  Tongoa,  New  Hebrides. 

Michener,  Charles  L.,  Jamaica,  West  Indies. 

Milsaps,  Major  John,  Manila,  P.  I. 

Mood,  Rev.  John  Richardson,  A.M.,  B.D.,  Monterey,  Mexico. 

Moore,  Rev.  Pitt  Holland,  M.A.,  Nowgong,  Assam,  India. 

Morgan,  Rev.  Fred  H.,  Singapore,  S.  S. 

Moscrop,  Thomas,  Colombo,  Ceylon. 

Miiller,  Rev.  A.,  Ellichpur,  India. 

Nail,  Rev.  Percy  Charles,  Mymensing,  India. 

Neville,  Rev.  Abia,  Tangail,  India. 

Paton,  Hugh,  Mazagan,  Morocco. 

Pearce,  Rev.  Charles  William,  Bankies,  South  Africa. 

Pease,  Rev.  Edmund  M.,  M.D.,  Marshall  Is.  and  Kusaie,  Micronesia. 

Peery,  Rev.  Rufus  B.,  Ph.D.,  Saga,  Japan. 

Pettee,  Rev.  James  H.,  D.D.,  Okayama,  Japan. 

Pilz,  Miss  Charlotte,  Jerusalem,  Palestine. 

Potter,  Staff  Captain  W.  Scott,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Preston,  Rev.  Thomas  James,  Hankow,  China. 


548  GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

Price,  Rev.  Francis  M.,  B.A.,  B.D.,  Guam,  Caroline  Is.,  Micronesia. 

Price,  Rev.  Philip  Francis,  Kashing,  China. 

Renius,  Rev.  Victor,  Hankow,  China. 

Renkewitz,  Rev.  Ernst  Adolf,  Parimaribo,  Dutch  Guiana. 

Rice,  Rev.  Clarence  E.,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Richards,  Rev.  Erwin  Hart,  D.D.,  Inhambane.  East  Africa. 

Rodgers,  Rev.  James  B.,  Manila,  P.  I. 

Rostvig,  Rev.  L.,  Tullear,  Madagascar. 

Rowe,  Rev.  Richard  Henry,  Cape  Hayti,  Hayti,  W.  I. 

Rudd,  Rev.  Augustus  Bartow,  Ponce,  Porto  Rico,  W.  I. 

Salmans,  Rev.  Levi  B.,  M.D.,  Guanajuato,  Mexico. 

Scherer,  Rev.  James  A.  B.,  Ph.D.,  Saga,  Japan. 

Scott,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Osaka,  Japan. 

Scott,  Rev.  T.  J.,  D.D.,  Bareilly,  India. 

Sheffield,  Rev.  Devello  Z.,  D.D.,  Peking,  China. 

Shumaker,  H.  K.,  M.D.,  Canton,  China. 

Sjoblam,  Rev.  Wilhelm  Edward,  Ikoko,  S.  W.  Africa. 

Sleeper,  Mrs.  Hannah  E.,  Douglas  Island,  Alaska. 

Smaill,  Rev.  Thomas,  B.A.,  Nikaura,  Epi,  New  Hebrides. 

Small,  Rev.  Arthur  J.,  Bau,  Fiji  Is. 

Smith,  Charles  Edward,  Ogbomoshaw,  West  Africa. 

Smith,  Rev.  Julius,  Toungoo,  Burma. 

*Smith,  Rev.  Thomas  Snell,  M.A.,  Jaffna,  Ceylon. 

Soper,  Rev.  Julius,  A.M.,  D.D.,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Sprague,  Rev.  W.  P.,  Kalgan,  China. 

Stavem,  Ola,  Durban,  South  Africa. 

Stokke,  Rev.  K.  S.,  Runingfu,  China. 

Swinney,  Miss  Ella  Frances,  M.D.,  Shanghai,  China. 

Takle,  Rev.  John,  Brahmanbaria,  India. 

Taylor,  Joseph,  Hoshangabad,  India. 

*Thoburn,  Miss  Isabella,  Lucknow,  India. 

Thoburn,  Bishop  James  Mills,  D.D.,  Bombay,  India. 

Thompson,   Miss   Caroline   M.,   Beyrout,   Syria. 

Towson,  Rev.  Willard  Elmore,  Kobe,  Japan. 

Tremberth,   Rev.   Wm.,  Chung-king,   China. 

Tucker,  Rev.  Hugh  Clarence,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil. 

Unangst,  Rev.  E.,  D.D.,  Guntur,  India. 

Valentine,  Rev.   Colin  S.,  F.R.C.S.E.,  LL.D.,  Agra,   India. 

Vartan,  P.  Kaloosd,  M.D.,  L.R.C.S.  &  P.E.,  Nazareth,  Palestine. 

Waddell,  Rev.  W.  A.,  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil. 

Waidtlow,  Rev.  C.  B.,  Port  Arthur,  China. 

Walker,  Rev.  Joseph  E.,  A.M.,  Shao-wu,  Foochow,  China. 

Walsh,  Rev.  H.  Pakenham,  M.A.,  Chhota  Nagpur,  India. 


APPENDIX   A  549 

Ward,  E.  F.,  Raj.  Nandgaon,  British  India. 

Ward,  Miss  Theodora  S.,  Beyrout,  Syria. 

Weber,  Rev.  J.,  Leh,  Ladak,  Kashmir. 

West,  Mrs.  Lida  M.,  Rotifunk,  W.  Africa. 

Whytock,  Rev.  Peter,  Balololand,  Central  Africa. 

Williams,  Rev.  Mark,  Kalgan,  China. 

Winton,  Rev.  George  B.,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico. 

Withey,  Rev.  Herbert  Cookman,  Pungo  Andongo,  Africa. 

Witte,  George  R.,  Carolina,  Brazil. 

Woodward,  Archdeacon  H.  W.,  Majila,  Tanga,  German  East  Africa. 

Woodworth,  Rev.  A.  D.,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

Woodside,  Rev.  Thos.  W.,  Benguella,  S.  W.  Africa. 

Young,  Rev.  John  C,  M.B.,  CM.,  Shejkh  Othman,  Arabia. 

Young,  Miss  Susie  A.,  Zafarwal,  India. 

Zachary,  Rev.  Francis  E.,  B.A.,  Masasi,  East  Africa. 

Zucher,  Rev.  E.  P.,  Greenland. 

Zwemer,  Rev.  S.  M.,  F.R.G.S.,  Bahrein,  Persian  Gulf. 


APPENDIX    B 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


GENERAL    WORKS 

Allgemeine  Missions-Zeitschrift 

Barrows  J.  H.  editor  World's 
Parliament  of  Religions    2v    1893 

Bartholomew  J.     Citizens'  Atlas 

Bliss  E.  M.  editor  Encyclopaedia 
of  missions      2  v      1891 

Burkhardt  G.  E.  &  R.  Grundeman 
Kleine  Missions-Bibliothek  4  v 
1876-81 

Chisholm  C.  G.  Times  (Long- 
mans)   gazetteer   1899 

Church  Missionary  Atlas     1896 

Church  Missionary   Intelligencer 

Davidson  A.  Geographical  pathol- 
ogy 2  V     1892 

Deniker   J.      Ethnographic 

Deniker  J.     Races  of  man     1901 

Dennis  J.  S.  Christian  missions 
and  social  progress  (volume  of 
Centennial     statistics)     1902 

Ecumenical  missionary  conference 
1900 

Geographical  Journal  (Royal  Geo- 
graphical   Society's   periodical) 

Graham  J.  A.  Missionary  expan- 
sion since  the  Reformation 
1899 

Grant  W.  D.  editor.  Christendom 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twen- 
tieth  century     1901 

Grundemann,  R.  Kleine  Missions- 
Geographie    und    -Statistik      1901 

Grundemann  R.  Neuer  Missions- 
Atlas     1896 

Gundert  H.  &■  6  others.  Die 
Evangelische  Mission      1894 

Hodder  E.  Conquests  of  the 
Cross     3  V      1890    ( ?) 

Hutchinson  H.  N.  and  others. 
Living  races  of  mankind     1901 

Keltie    J.    S.    and    I.    P.    A.    Ren- 
ivick    Statesman's  year-book  (sta- 
tistical, po'itical,  commercial) 
'  Leonard   D.   L.    A   hundred   years 
of  missions      1895 

Mill  H.  R.  &  69  others  Inter- 
ternational   geography     1900 

Mission  World 


Missionary  issues  of  the  twentieth 
century  (Conference  of  the 
Methodist   Church,   South)     1901 

Missionary  Reviezv  of  the   World 

Petermanns  Mittcilungen  (stan- 
dard German  geographical  jour- 
nal) 

Ratsel  F.  Anthropogeographie  2  v 
1891 

Ratsel  F.  History  of  mankind  3  v 
1896-99 

Rectus  E.  Nouvelle  Geographie 
Universelle     19  v     1876-94 

Earth  and  its  inhabitants  (trans- 
lation of  the  above)      19  v     1895 

Report  of  the  missionary  confer- 
ence,   London,    1888     2v 

Saint-Martin  V.  de  Nouveau  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Geographie  Uni- 
verselle 1879 — (series  still  in 
progress) 

Scobel  A.  editor  Andrees  allge- 
meiner  Handatlas.  Vierte  Auf- 
lage     1899 

Scobel  A.  &  IS  others.  Geo- 
graphisches  Handbuch     1899 

Speer  R.  E.  Missions  and  poli- 
tics in  Asia     1898 

Stanford's  compendium  of  geog- 
raphy and  travel     New  issues 

Sticler  A.      Hand-Atlas 

StrUmpfel  E.  Was  Jedermann 
heute  von  der  Mission  wissen 
muss     1901 

Student  missionary  appeal  (re- 
port of  Student  Volunteer  Con- 
vention,  Cleveland,    1898) 

Students  and  the  missionary  prob- 
lem (report  Student  Volunteer 
Convention,   London,    1900) 

Times  Atlas  (translation  of  the 
Andrees  with  additions  and  omis- 
sions)    1899 

Warneck  G.  Abriss  einer  Ge- 
schichte  der  protestantischen 
Missionen     1901 

Outline  of  a  history  of  Protestant 
missions  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  present  time  (translation 
of  the  above)      1901 


^  Bears  especially  on 
*   Indicates  material 
which  it  precedes. 


Part  I  of  chapter.  '  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter, 

of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 


S50 


APPENDIX    B 


551 


AMERICAN   ABORIGINES 

'1 2  Annual  reports  of  the  Board  of 
Indian  Commissioners,  Wash- 
ington 

*'  Annual  reports  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,   Washington 

*2  Baicrlein  G.  R.  Im  Urwalde.  Bei 
den  roten  Indianern     1894 

*i  Bancroft  H.  H.  Native  races  of 
the  Pacific  States  of  North 
America  5  v  1874-76 
2  Batty  B.  Twenty-two  years 
amongst  the  Indians  and  the 
Eskimo 
1  Brinton  D.  G.  Aboriginal  Ameri- 
can authors    1883 

*^  Burroughs  J.  S"  &  others  Alaska 
(Harriman  Alaska  Expedition) 
2  V     1901 

^*  Classified   digest   of  the   records  of 
the    Society    for   the    Propagation 
of   the    Gospel     1893 
^  Douglas     M.    Across     Greenland's 

ice   fields     1896 
'  Eels    M.    History    of    the    Indian 
missions     on     the     Pacific     coast 
1882 

1  2  Grenfcll   W.   T.    Vikings  of  to-day 
1896 
=  Hamilton    J.    T.     Missions    of    the 

Moravian    Church     1901 
^  Jackson    H.    H.     Century    of    dis- 
honor    1881 

^  *  Jackson  S.  Alaska  and  missions 
on  the  North  Pacific  Coast    1880 

^  2  Page  J.  Amid  Greenland  snows 
1892 

1  Park-in     G.     R.    Great     Dominion 

1895 

2  Riggs    S.    E.    Mary    and    I,    forty 

years    with    the    Sioux     1880 
*i  Schoolcraft  H.  R.     History,  condi- 
tion and  prospects  of  the  Indian 
tribes.      U.    S.    A.      6  v      1851-56 
1  Sievers   W.    Amerika     1894 
*  Stock    E.     History    of    the    Church 
Missionary   Society      3  v      1899 
^  '  Thompson     A.     C.    Moravian     mis- 
sions    1882 
'   Wilson    E.    F.      Missionary    work 
among     the      Ojibway      Indians 

»  Young     E.     R.    Apostle     of     the 
North    (James   Evans)     1899 
1*  Voting  E.  R.    On  the  Indian  trail 
1893 

II 

MEXICO 

1  Bancroft    H.    H.    Popular    history 

of   the    Mexican   people     1888 

*»  Bancroft    H.     H.     Resources      and 

development   of  Mexico     1894 

^  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter. 


*^  Brown      H.      W.    Latin     America 

1901 
»  Butler    W.    Mexico    in   transition 

1892 
^  Gooch    F.    C.    Face    to    face    with 

the    Mexicans     1890 
'  Hale   S.    Mercedes    1895 

*  Haven    G.    Our    next-door    neigh- 

bor    1875 

*  Historical  sketches  of  foreign  mis- 

sions       of        the        Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  U.   S.   A.     1897 

»  John   I.    G.    Handbook   of   Metho- 
dist  missions 
' '  Johnson    H.     M.       About    Mexico, 
past   and   present    1887 

^  Lummis  C.  F.  Awakening  of  a 
nation     1898 

'  Rankin   M.      Twenty   years   among 
the    Mexicans     1875 
*'  Ratsel    F.       Aus     Mexico:      Reise- 
skizzen   aus   den   Jahren    1874-75 
1878 

»  Reid  J.  M.  and  J.  T.  Gracey 
Missions  and  missionary  society 
of  tne  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church     3v      1895 

^  Romero  M.  Geographical  and  sta- 
tistical  notes  on   Mexico      1898 

*  Speer  R.  E.     Presbyterian  foreign 

missions     1901 


III 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 

*i  Bancroft   H.   H.    Central   America 

3  v      1882-87 
1  Belt    T.    Naturalist    in    Nicaragua 

1889 
1  Brigham     W.     T.    Guatemala,    the 

land   of   the   quetzal     1887 
'  Central  American  Bulletin 
'  Crozve       F.     Gospel       in       Central 

America     1850 
*  Historical  sketches  of  Presbyterian 

missions     (Presbyterian     Church 

U.    S.    A.)      1897 
'  Missionary   Review   of  the    World, 

March,    1901 
^  Squier  E.   G.    Notes  on  the  States 

of   Central   America     1858 
^   Vincent    F.     In    and    out    of    Cen- 
tral  America     1890 

IV 

WEST  INDIES 

**  Acosta  J.  de  Natural  and  moral 
history  of  the  West  Indies  2  v 
1880 
1  Bates  H.  W.  Central  America 
West  Indies  and  South  America 
(Stanford  compendium  series) 
1885 

*  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter. 


Indicates  material  of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 
which  it  precedes. 


552 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


^  ^  Bowles    G.    Jamaica    and    Friends' 

Mission    1900. 
^  Dewits  A.   von   In   Danisch  West- 
indien    1899. 

1  Fronde  J.  A.     English  in  the  West 

Indies     1888 

2  Vrant   W.   D.   editor     Christendom 

at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 

century     1901 
1  Hill  R.   T.     Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 

with    the    other    islands    of    the 

West   Indies      1898 
*^  Kingsley    C.      At    last:     Christmas 

in  the  West  Indies     1889 
-  Missionary   Review    of   the    World 

(files   for   1900,    1901) 
1  Rodway   J.      West    Indies   and   the 

Spanish   main      1896 
1  St.  John  S.     Hayti,   or  the  Black 

Republic     1889 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Agassis  L.  &  Mrs.  Agassis  A 
Journey  in   Brazil      1868 

Beach  H.  P.  &  7  others  Protest- 
ant missions  in  South  America 
1900 

Bliss  E.  M.  editor  Encyclopaedia 
of  missions  (articles  on  the  re- 
publics, especially  Brazil)  2  v 
1891 

Brett  W.  H.  Mission  work  among 
the  Indian  tribes  in  the  forests 
of    Guiana 

Brown  H.  W.    Latin  America    1901 

Bureau  of  American  Republics 
(their  handbooks  on  the  various 
republics) 

Child  T.  Spanish-American  repub- 
lics     1891 

Fletcher  J.  C.  &  D.  P.  Kidder 
Brazil   and   the    Brazilians      1866 

Keane  A.  H.  Central  and  South 
America    vol  I      1901 

Marsh  J.  W.  &  W.  H.  Stirling 
Story  of  Commander  Allen  Gar- 
diner,   R.    N.      1874 

Millard  E.  C.  &  L.  E.  Guinness 
South  America,  the  neglected 
continent      1894 

Olsson  E.  Dark  continent  at  our 
doors      1899 

Pfotcnhauer  J.  Die  Missionen  der 
Jesuiten  in   Paraguay    3  V     1891- 

Reclus  E.  The  earth  and  its  in- 
habitants— South  America  2  v 
1894-95 

Taylor    W.     Our   South  American 
cousins      1878 
'  Young    R.      From    Cape    Horn    to 
Panama      1900 


OCEANIA    PROPER 

Alexander  J.    M.      Islands   of  the 

Pacific      189s 
Anderson  R.    History  of  the  Sand- 
wich  Islands  mission      1870 
Arbousset  T.     Tahiti  et  les  iles  ad- 

jacentes      1864 
Brain    B.    M.      Transformation    of 

Hawaii     1899 
Calvert    J.      Fiji    and    the    Fijians 

1877 
Codrington^  R.    H.       Melanesians: 

studies     in     their     anthropology 

and    folklore      189 1 
Cousins    G.      Story    of    the    South 

Seas     1894 
Crosby    E.    T.      With    South    Sea 

folk      1899 
Cumming   C.   F,   G.     At   home   in 

Fiji       1884 
Gill    W.     IV.      From    darkness    to 

light   in    Polynesia      1894 
Grove-Rasmussen    A.    C.    L.      Viti 

for  og  nu      1884 
Guillemard_    F.    H.    H.      Malaysia 

and   Pacific  archipelagoes    (Stan- 
ford's Compendium  Series)    1894 
Paton  J.  G.  Missionary  to  the  New 

Hebrides      1898 
Stevenson  R.  L.     Letters  from  the 

Pacific     1897 
Waits-Gerland      Anthropologic    der 

Naturvolker     vol  VI      1872 
Whitmee  S.  J.     Polynesia,  islands, 

races,    missions 
Yonge  C.  M.     John  Coleridge  Pat- 

teson     2  v     1875 


VII 

NEW   ZEALAND,    AUSTRALIA, 
NEW    GUINEA 

2  Hasselt    J.    L.       Gedenkboek    van 
arig    Zendingsleven     op 


iw-Gi 


2  Kunse      Im    Dienste    des    Kreuzes 
auf    ungebahnten    Pfaden      1897 

^  Lumholts     C.       Among    cannibals 
(Queensland   aborigines) 

^  McDougall  D.      Conversion   of  the 
Maoris      1899 

^  McFarlane  S.      Among  the  canni- 
bals  of   New   Guinea      1888 

'  Reeves    W.    P.      The    long    white 
cloud      1899 

-  Robson   W.    James  Chalmers    1901 
*i  Shortland   E.      Maori   religion   and 
mythology      1882 

•  Sievers   W.     Australasien     1894 
*'   Wallace  A.  R.     Australia  and  New 
Zealand    (Stanford   Compendium 
Series)      1894 

1  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter.  ^  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter 

*  Indicates  material  of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 
which  it  precedes. 


APPENDIX    B 


553 


MALAY    ARCHIPELAGO 

Bible  Society  Record  (files  for 
Philippines) 

Dijkstra  H.  Het  Evangelic  in 
onze    Oost      1893 

Foreman  J.  Philippine  Islands 
1899 

Guillcmard  F.  H.  H.  Malaysia 
and  Pacific  archipelagoes  (Stan- 
ford's Compendium   Series)    1894 

Hodder  E.  Conquests  of  the  cross 
3v      1890     (?) 

Mededeclingen  van  Wege  het 
N  ederlandsche  Zendelinggenoot- 
schap 

Roth  H.  L.  Nations  of  Sarawak 
and   British   North   Borneo     1896 

Speer  R.  E.  Presbyterian  foreign 
missions      1901 

Wallace  A.  R.     Malay  Archipelago 

Veth  P.  J.     Java     3  v      1875-84 
1890 

Worcester  D.  C.  Philippine  Is- 
lands    1898 


IX 
JAPAN   AND   FORMOSA 

Batchelor  J.    Ainus  of  Japan    1892 

Campbell  W.  Missionary  success 
in    Formosa      1889 

Cary  O.  Japan  and  its  regenera- 
tion    1899 

Chamberlain  B.  H.  Things  Japa- 
nese     1892 

Chamberlain  B.  H.  &  W.  B.  Ma- 
son Murray's  handbook  to 
Japan      1901 

Dalton  Auf  Missionspfaden  in 
Japan      1895 

American  mission- 
1892 
Mikado's    empire 


Verbeck  of  Japan 
Life     of    Joseph 


Gordon  M.  L. 
ary  in  Japan 

Griffis    W.    E. 
1896 

Griffis   W.   E. 
1900 

Hardy     A.     S. 

Hardy  Neesima      i»9i 

Japan   Evangelist 

Japan   Weekly  Mail 

Johnston   J.      China   and    Formosa 

Mackay  G.  L.  From  far  For- 
mosa    1898 

Peery  R.  B.     Gist  of  Japan     1897 

Rein  J.  J.     Japan     1884 

Ritter  H.  Dreissig  Jahre  protest. 
Mission  in  Japan  1890  Transla- 
tion of  above  by  G.  E.  Albrecht, 
with  additions  by  D.  C.  Greene 
under  title,  History  of  Protestant 
missions  in  Japan     1898 

Tristram  H.  B.  Rambles  in 
Japan     1895 


KOREA 

^  Allen   H.   N.     Korean  tales      1889 

*  Bishop  I.  B.     Korea  and  her  neigh- 

bors     1898 
'  Carles  W.  R.    Life  in  Korea    1894 

*  Cavendish    A.    E.    J.      Korea    and 

the  sacred  white  mountain     1894 

2  Dallct   C.      Histoire   de   I'Eglise   de 

Coree     2  v     1874 

*'  ^  Gale  J.  S.     Korean  sketches     1898 

^*-  Gifford   D.    L.      Everyday    life    in 

Korea      1898 
*  2  Gilmore    G.    W.      Korea    from    its 

capital      1892 
^  ^  Griffis    IV.   E.      Corea,   the   hermit 
nation      1897 
2  Hall  R.  S.     Life  of  William  James 
Hall      1897 
*'*^  Korea  Rcviciv 

*^*-  Korean     Repository      (has     ceased 
publication) 
^  Landor     A.     H.      S.        Corea,     or 

Cho-sen      1895 
2  Speer  R.  E.     Presbyterian  foreign 
missions      1901 

XI 
CHINA,    MANCHURIA,    MONGOLIA 

2  Barber  W.  T.  A.    David  Hill,  mis- 
sionary and  saint     1898 
^  2  Beach    H.   P.      Dawn    on   the    hills 
of  T'ang     1898 

1  Bishop    Mrs.    J.    F.      Yangtze    val- 

ley and   beyond      2  v      1900 

2  Broomhall   M.      Martyred   mission- 

aries     1901 
^  Chang     Chih-tung       China's     only 
hope      1900 
*-  China   mission    handbook      1896 
*^  Chinese    Recorder 
1  Colqiihoun     A.     R.       Overland     to 
China      1900 
*'  Douglas  R.  K.     Confucianism  and 
Taouism      1879 

1  Douglas  R.   K.     Society  in   China 

1894 
^*^  Gibson    J.     C.       Mission    problems 
and    mission    methods    in    South 
China      1901 
'*2  Gilmour   J.      Among    the    Mongols 

1884 
^  2  Holcombe   C.      Real    Chinese   ques- 
tion     1900 
*i  Lechler    R.      Acht    Vortrage    iiber 

China      1861 
*^  Legge  J.  Religions  of  China     1881 

2  Lovett    R.      Gilmour   of    Mongolia 

1892 
1  Martin      W.      A.      P.        Cycle      of 
Cathay     1896 
*i  Martin  W.  A.  P.     Lore  of  Cathay 
1901 


1  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter.  ^  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter. 

*  Indicates  material  of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 
which  it  precedes. 


554 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


^  Nevius  H.  S.  C.     John  Livingston 

Nevius      189s 

**  Records  of  the  general  conferences 

held    at    Shanghai    in    1877    and 

1890 

*i  Richtofen     F.     von       China       3  v 

1877 
^ '  Selby    T.   G.      Chinamen   at   home 
1900 
*i  *2  S'^iith  A.  H.     China  in  convulsion 

2  V      1901 
*^ '  Smith    A.    H.      Chinese    character- 
istics     1894 
»  Taylor    Mrs.    F.    H.      In    the    Far 
East      1 90 1 
^  2   Voskamp    C.   J.      Unter   dem    Ban- 
ner   des    Drachen    und    im    Zei- 
chen  des  Kreuzes     1898 
*'  ^  Williams   S.    IV.    Middle   Kingdom 

2V        1883 

XII 

SIAM,     LAOS,     STRAITS     SETTLE- 
MENTS 

*  Bock    C.      Temples    and    elephants 

1884 
1*  Cort  M.  L.     Siam     1886 

*  Feudge  E.  R.     Eastern  side     1871 
^  Flccson     K.     N.       Laos     folk-lore 

1.899 
^  Grinrod    Mrs.      Siam,    a   geograph- 
ical   summary      1895 

*  Hallett  H.  S.     One  thousand  miles 

on   an    elephant      1890 

*  Mouhot    M.    H.      Travels    in    the 

central  parts  of  Indo-China, 
Cambodia  and  Laos  2  v  1862 
^*^  Siam   and   Laos      1884 

^  Smyth  H.  W.  Five  years  in  Siam 
2  V     1898 

'  Speer  R.  E.  Presbyterian  foreign 
missions      1901 

'  Thoburn  J.  M.  India  and  Malay- 
sia    1893 

XIII 

BURMA    AND    CEYLON 

*  Anderson     R.        History     of     the 

American  Board  in  India  1874 
(Ceylon) 

1  Bishop  Mrs.  I.  L.  Golden  Cher- 
sonese     1883      (Burma) 

^  Carpenter  C.  H.  Self-support  in 
Bassein      1883 

^  Colquhoun  A.  R.  &  H.  S.  Hallett 
Amongst  the  Shans  1885  (Bur- 
ma) 

^  Ferguson  J.  Ceylon  in  1893  1893 
*^  Judson  E.  Life  of  Adoniram  Jud- 
son      1883       (Burma) 

*  Lambert    C.    W.      Missionary   mar- 

tyr of  Thibaw  1896  (Upper 
Burma) 


'  Langdon    S.      Appeal    to    the    ser- 
pent   (Ceylon) 
■  2  Leitch  M.  &  M.   W.     Seven  years 
in  Ceylon      1890 

*  Mason   E.   B.      Civilizing  mountain 

men    (Karens)    1862 
»  Merriam  E.  F.     History  of  Amer- 
ican  Baptist  missions     1900 

*  Selkirk    J.      Recollections   of    Cey- 

lon    1844 
»i  Shzvay    Yoe    (7.    G.    Scott)      The 
Burman,    his    life    and    notions 
1896 

*  Tcnncnt  J.  E.     Progress  of  Chris- 

tianity   in    Ceylon      1850 


INDIA 

Baierlein  G.  R.  Unter  den  Pal- 
men     1890 

Bombay    Guardian 

Chamberlain  J.  In  the  tiger  jungle 
1896 

Dubois  J.  A.  Hindu  manners, 
customs    and    ceremonies       1899 

Fuller  Mrs.  M.  B.  Wrongs  of 
Indian   womanhood      1900 

Guinness  L.  E.  Across  India  at 
the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury     1898 

Hunter  W.  W.  Indian  Empire 
1892 

Hunter  W.  W.  Brief  history  of 
the  Indian  people  1897  (abridg- 
ment   of    above) 

Indian    Evangelical    Review 

Modak  S.  Directory  of  Protest- 
ant Indian  Christians     2  v     1900 

Murdoch  J.  Indian  missionary 
manual      1889 

Padfield  J.  E.  Hindu  at  home 
1896 

Reichelt  Die  Himalayamission  der 
Briidergemeinde      1896 

Report  of  the  third  decennial  con- 
ference, Bombay,  1892-93  2  v 
1893 

Sherring  M.  A.  History  of  Prot- 
estant missions  in  India,  1706- 
1881      1884 

Smith  G.  Conversion  of  India 
1894 

Stewart  R.  Life  and  work  in 
India     1896 

Stosch  G.     Im  fernen  Indien     1896 

Thoburn  J.  M.  India  and  Ma- 
laysia    1892 

Tisdall  W.  St.  Clair-  India,  its 
history,  darkness  and  dawn   1901 

Vaughan  J.  Trident,  the  crescent 
and   the   cross      1876 

Wilder  R.  P.  Among  India's  stu- 
dents     1899 


^  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter.  ^  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter. 

*  Indicates  material  of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 
hich  it  precedes. 


APPENDIX    B 


555 


»  Wilkins  W.  J.  Daily  life  and 
work   in   India      1888 

1  Wilkins  W.  J.  Hindu  mythology 
1882 

1  Williams  M._  Monier-  Brahman- 
ism  and  Hinduism      1891 

»  Wilson  Mrs.  A.  Carus-  Irene 
Petrie      1900 

XV 

PERSIA 

*  Anderson    R.       Missions     of     the 

American  Board  to  the  Oriental 
Churches      2  v      1872 
1  =  Bassctt  J.     Persia,  the  land  of  the 
Imams      1886 
»  Benjamin  S.  G.  W.     Story  of  Per- 
sia     1891 

*  Bishop  I.  L.  B.     Journeys  in  Per- 

sia and  Kurdistan     2  v     1891 
^  Browne    E.    G.      A    year    amongst 

the    Persians      1893 
*i  Curzon    G.    N.       Persia    and    the 

Persian    question      2  v      1892 
'  2  Laurie    T.       Dr.     Grant    and    the 

mountain    Nestorians       1853 
'  Laurie    T.      Woman    and    the    gos- 
pel   in    Persia      (Fidelia    Fiske) 

1887 
'  Perkins     J.       Missionary     life  _  in 

Persia      among      the      Nestorian 

Christians      1861 

*  Speer    R.     E.       Presbyterian     for- 

eign  missions      1901 
1  Wills   C.    J.      In   the   land   of   the 
lion  and  the  sun      1891 
i*»  Wilson    S.    G.      Persian    life    and 
customs      1895 

XVI 
TURKISH   EMPIRE 

'  Anderson  R.  A.     Missions  of  the 

American        Board    —    Oriental 

Churches      2  v      1872 
'  Bliss.  I.    G.      Twenty-five   years   of 

Bible  work  in   the   Levant.     1883 
"  Cuinct   V.    La  Turquie  d'Asie    4  v 

1890-95 
^  *  Dzvight     H.      O.        Constantinople 

and    its    problems      1901 
*2  Hamlin    C.      My    life    and    times 

1893 
» »  Harris    J.    R.    &    H.    B.      Letters 

from   Armenia      1897 
*8  Muir    W.    Translator      Sweet    first 

fruits     1893  _ 

1  Poole  S.  Lane-     Story  of  Turkey 

1893 
*  Prime   E.    D.    G.      Forty   years   m 

the  Turkish   Empire    (memoir   of 

Dr.   Goodell)      1875 
* '  Ramsay    IV.    M.      Impressions    of 

Turkey      1897 

1  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter. 
*  Indicates  material  of  special  value  on 
which  it  precedes. 


*^  Smith  G.  A.  Historical  geography 
of  the   Holy   Land      1897 

'  Tracy  C.  C.  Talks  on  the  veranda 
1893 

»  West  M.  A.  Romance  of  mis- 
sions     187s 

»  Wheeler  C.  H.  Ten  years  on  the 
Euphrates     1868 

*  Wheeler  Mrs.  C.  H.  Missions  in 
Eden     1899 


XVII 

AFRICA 

**  Arnot  F.  S.     Garenganze     1889 
»  Battersby    C.    F.    Harford-       Pilk- 
ington    of    Uganda      1899 
^  *  Bentley   W.  H.      Pioneering  on  the 

Congo      2  V      1900 
•1  2  Blaikie    W.    G.      Personal    life    of 
David    Livingstone       i88o 
1 2  Bohner    H.      Im    Lande    des    Fe- 
tisches      1890 
2  Brincker  P.  H.     Aus  dem  Herero- 

lande     1896 
*  Broivn    R.       Africa    and    its    ex- 
plorers    3v      1893 
*i  2  Bryce    J,      Impressions    of    South 
Africa      1897 
»  Buchner  C.     Acht  Monate  in  Siid- 
afrika     1894 
^  ^  Carnegie  D.     Among  the  Matabele 
1 2  Casalis    E.       My     life     in     Basuto 

Land      1889 
12  Coillard   F.      On   the   threshold    of 
Central    Africa      1897 
1  Cross    D.    K.      Health    in    Africa 
1900 
*  *  Doring  P.     Morgendammerung  in 

Deutsch-Ostafrika      1899 
*i  Drummond    H.       Tropical    Africa 

1888 
i«  Elmslie    W.    A.      Among   the    wild 
Ngoni     1899 
^  Heazvood     E.       Elementary     geog- 
raphy of  Africa      1897 
*'  Jack  J.    W.     Daybreak   in   Living- 

stonia     1900 
1 2  Johnston     J.       Reality     versus     ro- 
mance   in    South    Central    Africa 
1893 
*'  Keane   A.    H.      Africa      2  v      1895 
(Stanford's  Compendium  Series) 
*i  Keltic   J.    S.      Partition    of    Africa 
1895 
1  Kingsley  M.  H.     Travels  in  West 

Africa      1897 
'  Mcrensky  A.     Deutsche  Arbeit  am 


Nohh 


e  F.  P.    Redemption  of  Africa 

2  V      1899 
2  Parsons  E.   C.     A  life  for  Africa 

(Dr.    Good)      1897 
2  Richter    J.       Evang.     Mission     im 

Njassalande      1897 

'  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter, 
the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 


556 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


Robinson  C.  H.     Hausaland      1896 
'  Rbmer   Kamerun,  Land,  Leute  und 

Mission      1899 
'  Rutherford    J.   and  E.   H.   Glenny 

Gospel   in    North   Africa      1900 
'  Schreiher    A.       Fiinf     Monate    in 
Siidafrika     1894 
Sievers   W.     Afrika     1894 
Stanley  H.  M.     In  darkest  Africa 
2  V     1890 
'  Stock  S.   G.     Story  of  Uganda 
Tyler  J.      Forty   years   among   the 

Zulus     1891 
'  Watson   A.     American  mission   in 
Egypt      1898 
White     A.     S.       Development    of 
Africi      1890 


AFRICAN  ISLANDS 

Borchgrevink  C.  D.  Kortfattet 
Oversigt  over  Madagaskar  dets 
Folk  eg  Mission  1885 
Cousins  W.  E.  Madaj;ascar  of  to- 
day 1895 
'  Eppler  Thranensaat  und  Freuden- 
ernte  auf  Madagaskar     1874 

■  Escande  B.      Neuf   Mois   a   Mada- 

gascar    1898 
'  Fletcher    J.    J.    K.      Sign    of    the 

cross  in  Madagascar     1900 
'  Madagascar    et    le    Protestantisme 

Frangais      1897 

■  Mullens  J.  Twelve  months  in  Mad- 

agascar     187s 
Rostvig   L.      Sakalaverne   og   deres 

Land     1886 
Sibree   J.      Madagascar   before   the 

conquest     1896 
Smith     H.       Among     the     Menabe 

1896 
Townsend    W.   J.      Madagascar,   its 

missionaries   and   martyrs      1892 


UNOCCUPIED  FIELDS 

*  Bishop    Mrs.    J.    F.      Among    the 

Tibetans      1894 
^  Bouinais    A.    &    H.    Paulus      La 

France    en    Indo-Chine      1890 
^  Colquhoun     A.     R.       Overland     to 

China      1900      (Siberia) 
»  Colquhoun  A.  R.  &  H.  S.  Hallett 

Amongst    the    Shans      1885 
1  Deasy    H.    H.    P.      In    Tibet    and 

Chinese  Turkistan      1901 

•  Gundry     R.     S.       China     and    her 

neighbors     1893      (Tibet,  Siberia 
and  Indo-China) 
*  Hue    E.    R.       Recollections    of    a 
journey    through    Tartary,    Tibet 
and  China  in   1844-46     1852 


'  J  ess  up      H.      H.        Kami!        1898 

(Arabia) 
Kcane  A.  H.     Asia     2v     1896   (all 

these  fields,   Stanford's  Compen- 
dium   Series) 
Kcane  T.  F.     Six  months  in  Mec- 

cah      1 88 1 
Kennan    G.    W.      Siberia    and    the 

exile   system      2V      1891 
Landsdell     H.       Russian     Central 

Asia,  Kuldja,  Bokhara,  etc.     2V 

188s 
Landsdell  H.    Through  Siberia   2  v 

1882 
Marston  A.   W.     Great  closed  land 

1895      (Tibet) 
'  Mission    Field    (Reformed    Church 

of   America's   periodical   Arabia) 

■  Palgrave    W.    G.      Narrative    of    a 

year's    journey    through    Central 
and  Eastern  Arabia 
Rijnhart  S.  C.     With  the  Tibetans 
in   tent   and    temple      igoi 

Rock  hill  W.   IV.     Land  of  the  La- 
mas     1891      (Tibet) 
'  Schneider    H.     G.       Working    and 
waiting  for  Tibet     1891 

Shaiv  R.      Visits  to  High  Tartary, 
Yarkand  and  Kashgar     1871 

■  Sinker  R.     Memorials  of  the  Hon. 

Ion  Keith-Falconer     1890     (Ara- 
bia) 
Wolff  J.      Narrative  of  a   mission 

to   Bokhara     1845 
Zwemer  S.  M.     Arabia,  the  cradle 
of   Islam      1900 


XX 

THE    JEWS 

*  ^  Flad  J.  M.     Falashas  of  Abyssinia 

1869 
^  Frederic  H.   New   Exodus,  a  study 

of  Israel      1892 
^  Gaussen  S.  R.  L.     Jews:  their  past, 

present  and   future      1881 
2  Gidney    W.    T.      Jews    and    their 

evangelization      1899  ■ 
=  Gidney    W.    T.      Sites   and   scenes 

2   Parts     1897-99 
*'^  -  Graetc    H.      History    of    the    Jews 

5  V      1892 
'  Harris  I.     Jewish  Year  Book     1901 

-  Jewish  Era 

-  Jezvish    Missionary    Intelligence 

2  Kellogg  S.  H.     The  Jews,  or  pre- 
diction and  fulfilment     1883 

2  Leroy  B.  A.     Israel  among  the  na- 
tions    189s 

^  Nathanael 
*==  Saat  auf  Hoffnung 

^  Trusting  and  Toiling 

2   Wilkinson    S.       Evangelization    of 
the  Jews  in   Russia      1899 

=   Wolff  J.     Travels  and  Adventures 
of  Wolff     2  v     i860 


1  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter.  ^  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter. 

*  Indicates  material  of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 
which  it  precedes. 


APPENDIX    B 


557 


Zangwill  I. 
1893 


Children  of  the  Ghetto 


XXI 


CHINESE    AND    JAPANESE    IN 
CHRISTIAN    LANDS 

*  Assembly  Herald 

2  Byington   E.   H.      Some   phases  of 

the   Chinese   problem 
^  Census  Bulletin     Oct.   10,  1901 


*^  Condit  I.  M.     Chinaman  as  we  see 

him      1900 
'  Gospel  in   all   Lands 
'  Jce  Gam     History  and  incidents  of 

Chinese  work 
'  Jee    Gam  Present   crisis   in    China 

from  the   standpoint  of  a  Chris- 
tian   Chinese 
2  Missionary  Review  of  the   World, 

pp.  684-87       1901 
1  Speer   W.     China  and  the   United 

States    1870 
^  Strong  J.     Chinese  in  America  and 

the  regeneration  of  China 


^  Bears  especially  on  Part  I  of  chapter.  '  Bears  especially  on  Part  II  of  chapter. 

*  Indicates  material  of  special  value  on  the  Part  indicated  by  the  superior  numeral 
which  it  precedes. 


INDEX 


Aborigines  of  America,  3-44.  Their 
countries:  Greenland's  scenery,  3,  4; 
its  resources,  4;  climate,  4;  govern- 
ment, 4,  5;  Labrador's  Atlantic  coast, 
S;  its  wealth,  5,  6;  government  con- 
trol, 6;  Alaska,  a  continent,  6;  its 
northern  section,  6,  7;  the  Aleutian 
district,  7;  southern  part  of  Alaska, 
7,  8;  Secretary  Seward's  estimate  of 
its  value,  8;  relation  of  Alaska  to 
the  United  States,  8;  Dominion  of 
Canada's  name,  8,  9;  variety  of  physi- 
cal conformation,  9.  Races,  see  Eski- 
mos and  Indians. 

Aborigines  of  Australia,  167,  170;  mis- 
sion  work   for,    178,    179. 

Aborigines   of   India,    371,    372. 

Abyssinian  Christians,  448;  work  among 
them,   456. 

Africa,  431-476.  Geographical :  area, 
431;  accessibility,  432;  mean  elevation, 
432;  population,  432;  its  density,  432; 
religious  view  point,  432;  configura- 
tion and  relief,  432,  433;  African 
streams,  433;  its  great  rivers,  433;  the 
Nile,  433,  434;  four  most  important 
lakes,  434;  deserts,  435;  steppes,  435; 
savannas,  435;  Drummond's  descrip- 
tion, 436;  primeval  forests,  436,  437; 
methods  of  travel,  437;  Bishop  Augo- 
narde's  statement,  437;  travel  a  trial, 
438.  Climate  and  missions:  tempera- 
ture, 439;  rainfall,  439;  health,  439, 
440.  African  ethnology:  the  Semitic 
stock,  440;  its  leading  characteristics, 
440,  441;  Hamites,  441;  negroes  of 
the  black  zone,  442;  Bantu  negroes, 
442;  Drummond's  pen-portrait  of 
them,  442,  443;  his  account  of  their 
daily  life,  443,  444;  alleviating  fea- 
tures, 444;  Hottentots  and  Bushmen, 
445;  African  dwarfs,  445,  446.  Re- 
ligion and  morals:  general  location 
of  great  religions,  446;  percentage  of 
adherents,  446,  447;  Protestantism, 
447;  Catholicism,  447;  Coptic  Chris- 
tianity, 447,  448;  Abyssinian  Chris- 
tians, 448;  Mohammedans,  448,  449; 
African  heathen,  their  number,  449; 
fetishism.  449;  ancestral  worship,  450; 
vague  belief  in  a  God,  450;  priests  and 
sorcerers,  451.  Africas  future:  its 
natural  resources,  451;  its  peoples,  451, 
452;  political  status,  452,  453.  Stead's 
estimate  of  African  missions,  453-    So- 


cieties and  their  fields:  their  number, 
453.  454;  leading  societies  in  different 
sections,  454,  455;  general  facts  con- 
cerning societies  and  their  location,  455, 
456.  Types  labored  among:  work  for 
Copts,  456;  for  Abyssinian  Christians, 
456;  African  Moslems,  457;  Protestant 
attempts  to  reach  them,  457,  458;  work 
for  the  heathen,  458;  requires  versa- 
tility, 458,  459;  Western  civilization 
an  obstacle  to  missions,  459;  race  an- 
tipathies in  South  Africa,  459,  460; 
the  Ethiopian  Movement,  460,  461; 
other  problems  and  difficulties,  461; 
helpful  traits  and  beliefs,  462.  Ways 
of  working:  medicine  helpful  in 
Mohammedan  work,  462;  Dr.  Pren- 
tice's pen-picture,  462,  463;  an- 
aesthetics, 463;  a  year's  medical  work 
in  Africa,  463,  464;  evangelistic  ef- 
forts, importance  of  object  lessons, 
464;  fruitage,  465,  466;  literary  work, 
466;  education,  467-469;  Dr.  Laws'  ac- 
count of  primary  work,  467;  its  out- 
come, 467,  468;  higher  educational  ef- 
fort, 468;  spirit  of  college  students, 
469;  reasons  for  industrial  education, 
469,  470;  Lovedale  a  type,  470.  Tasks 
of  the  African  Church:  wide-spread 
evangelization  essential,  471;  its 
methods,  471,  472;  the  Church  and 
slavery,  472;  its  attitude  towards 
polygamy,  472;  should  minister  to 
womanhood,  472,  473;  woman's  im- 
portant places  in  African  society,  473, 
474;  duty  of  Church  toward  intem- 
perance, 474;  Pilkington's  appeal,  475; 
Dube's  statement,  475,  476;  portions 
not  occupied,  495. 

Agnew,  Miss,  in  Ceylon,  338,  339. 

Ainu,   208,   209. 

Allen,  Young  J.,  a  leading  missionary 
in  China,   277. 

Amazon,   a  missionary  highway,    105. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
pioneers  in  Siamese  work,  313;  work 
in    Burma,    330-333- 

American  Bible  Society  in  Central 
America,    78,    79. 

American  Board  in  Pacific  Islands, 
158,  159;  in  Ceylon,  338,  339;  lead- 
ing  society   in   Turkey,   417. 

American   Episcopalians  in   Hawaii,    162. 

Anaesthetics  in  Africa,  463. 

Anatolia,  409. 

Ancestral  worship  in  Korea,  244;  in 
China,  267,  268;  in  Africa,  450. 


559 


56o 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


Angakoks  of  Eskimos,  13. 

Anglicans  of  Australia  in  New  Guinea, 
181. 

Anglo-Indians,  362. 

Antananarivo,   479- 

Antilles,  Greater,  84. 

Antilles,   Lesser,  87. 

Arabs  in  Malay  Archipelago,   187. 

Archbishop's  Mission  to  Assyrian  Chris- 
tians,  400,    401.  .     . 

Argentine  Republic,  119,  120;  missions 
in,    134,   135- 

Armenian  Church,  415,  410,  420. 

Arthington  of  Leeds,  provides  for  Cen- 
tral   American    exploration,    80. 

Assyrian   Mission   Committee,  401. 

Atolls,    144. 

Australia,   see   Australian   aborigines. 

Australian  Aborigines,  167-171,  178- 
180.  Their  land,  167,  168;  animal 
life  of  Australia,  168,  169;  climate 
and  diseases,  169;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 169,  170;  religion,  170,  171; 
forms  of  missionary  effort,  178,  179; 
work  for  the  Kanakas  in,   179,   180.  _ 

Australian  Wesleyans,  181,  182;  in 
Fijis,   160. 

Aztecs  of  Mexico,   50,   51.   59. 


Babism  in   Persia,   398. 
Bahamas,  83,  84. 
Baptists  in  Central  America,  79. 
Barber,    W.    T.    A.,    testimony   concern- 
ing  Chinese.   297,    298. 
Bishop,   Mrs.,   on   Korean   Church,   255, 

256-  ... 

Bolivia,  120;  missions  in,  138. 

Bonin  Islands,  conditions  and  missions, 
232,   233. 

Borneo,   192. 

Boxer  Uprising,  see  China. 

Brahmans,   see   Hinduism. 

Brazil,   120,   121;  missions  in,   129-132. 

Bredon's  testimony  concerning  Peking 
missionaries,    298,    299. 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
Central  America,  78;  in  Borneo,  197; 
in    Siberia,    508,    509. 

British  Borneo,  see  Malay  Archipelago. 

British    Honduras,    68. 

British  New  Guinea,  missionary  work 
in,    180-182. 

Brown,  H.  W.,  on  Latin-American  prob- 
lems, 54,  55;  on  Mexican  characteris- 
tics helpful  in  missions,  55,  56;  on 
methods  of  work,   59,  60. 

Buddhism,  in  Japan,  215,  226,  227;  in 
China,  266;  in  Siam,  307;  a  prepara- 
tive for  Christianity  in  Laos,  315; 
in  Burma,  324,  325;  in  Ceylon,  328, 
329;  aroused  in  Ceylon,  341,  342;  m 
India,    358;    in   Tibet,    500,    501. 

Burma,  3>9-325,  330-336.  The  land:  ex- 
tent and  divisions,  319;  scenery  and 
products,  319,  320;  a  city  described, 
320;  hills  anei  mountains,  320,  321; 
roads,  321;  fauna,  321;  intercommuni- 
cation,  321;   climate  and  health,   321, 


322.  People:  number  and  races,  322; 
the  Burmese,  322,  323;  the  Shans,  323; 
the  Karens,  323;  the  Chinese,  323,  324. 
Religion:  statistics,  324;  monastic  life 
of  all  males,  324;  initiated  monks,  324, 
325.  Work  of  American  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union :  among  Burmans,  330, 
331 ;  among  Karens,  331 ;  their  zeal  and 
aggressiveness,  331,  332;  minor  mis- 
sions of  the  Union,  332,  333.  Society 
for  Propagation  of  the  Gospel:  its  be- 
ginnings, 333;  labors  among  Karens, 
333>  334;  work  on  Nicobar  and  An- 
daman Islands,  334,  335.  _  Methodist 
Board,  North,  335.  English  Wesley- 
ans, 335,  336. 
Bushmen,  445. 


Caleb,   J.   J.,   on   needs  and  position  of 

Hindu    Christians,    384-387. 
Canadian     Church     Missionary     Associa- 


tion's work  among  Arctic  Eskimos,  31. 

Candidates,  versatility  requisite  in 
Africa,  458,  459;  qualifications  for 
Arabian  service,  514;  for  Jewish  work, 
523.    524- 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  484,  485;  mission- 
ary  work,   492. 

Caste  in  Korea,  242;  in  India,  354,  356- 
358,  366. 

Castells,   Seiior,  quoted,   76,   82. 

Catholicism  :  in  Central  America,  75- 
77;  in  West  Indies,  90,  97-99;  in 
Oceania,  157;  in  South  America,  124- 
126;  in  Inca  countries,  139;  work  in 
the  Philippines,  189,  190;  low  form  of, 
in  Philippines,  190;  preparation  for 
Protestantism,  199;  its  future  in  Phil- 
ippines, 202,  203;  hostile  to  Protestants 
in  China,  285,  286;  in  India,  362,  363; 
in  Turkey,  426,  427. 

Catholic  missionaries:  in  Canada,  41; 
in  Mexico,  53-55,  57,  58. 

Celebes,    192,    193. 

Central  America,  67-82.  Physical  fea- 
tures: area  and  general  character,  67; 
climate,  68;  British  Honduras,  68; 
Guatemala,  68,  69;  descent  from  the 
highlands  of,  69;  Honduras,  69,  70; 
Salvador,  70;  Nicaragua,  70,  71;  Mos- 
quitia,  71;  Costa  Rica,  71,  72.  Central 
American  peoples:  composition  of  their 
population,  72;  distribution,  72;  racial 
characteristics  of  Indians,  72,  73;  of 
mestizos,  73;  of  zambos,  73;  of 
Creoles,  73,  74;  immigration  to  these 
countries,  74;  future  of  population, 
74;  historic  importance  of  Central 
American  races,  74.  Culture  and  re- 
ligion: Central  American  culture,  75; 
religion  and  superstition,  75.  Phases 
of  religion :  features  of  Catholicism  de- 
scribed, 76,  77;  effect  of  modern 
thought  on  Catholicism.  77.  Mission- 
ary force:  societies  engaged,  77;  Mora- 
vians, 77,  78;  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  78;  American  Bible  So- 
ciety, 78,  79;  Society  for  the  Propaga- 


S6i 


tion  of  the  Gospel,  79;  Baptist  mis- 
sionary effort,  79;  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dist missions,  79;  American  Presby- 
terians, North,  79,  80;  Central 
American  Mission,  80.  Characteristic 
difficulties  and  encouragements:  dif- 
ficulties besetting  Indian  work,  80, 
81;  Spanish  work  in  interior,  81; 
fruitage  of  Central  American  Mission, 
81,  82.  The  future:  opinion  of  Senor 
Castells,  82;  of  President  of  Hon- 
duras, 82. 

Central  American  Mission,  80. 

Ceylon,  325-330,  336-342.  The  land: 
a  Crown  Colony,  325;  physical  fea- 
tures, 325,  326;  its  plantation  system, 
326,  327;  climate,  327.  Inhabitants: 
two  classes,  327,  328;  peculiarities  of 
their  speech,  328.  Religion:  prevalent 
faiths,  328;  Ceylon's  importance  to 
Buddhism,  328,  329;  its  sacred  moun- 
tain, Adam's  peak,  329.  Education 
329.  330.  Missions:  societies  repre 
sented,  336,  Z37\  Baptist  pioneers 
337;  English  Wesleyans,  337,  338; 
American  Board's  pioneer  mission 
aries,  338;  Jaffna  College,  338: 
Oodooville  Girls'  Boarding  School, 
338,  339;  self-support  in  American 
Board  work,  339;  Church  Missionary 
Society's  Trinity  College,  339,  340; 
some  discouragements,  340;  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel, 
340,  341;  St.  Thomas  College,  341. 
Buddhism  aroused,  342;  notwithstand- 
ing this  the   outlook  is  hopeful,   342. 

Chagos    Archipelago,    484. 

Chaldean    Christians,   416. 

Chalmers,  James,    181. 

Chang  Chih-tung's  views  in  "  China's 
Only  Hope,"   292-297. 

Chapel   preaching   in   China,    282,   283. 

Chassidim,    519,    520. 

Children,  work  for,  in  West  Indies,  99, 
100;  in  India,  a  strategic  work,  369, 
370;  care  for  Chinese  children  in  the 
United  States,   538. 

Chile,   121;  missions  in,   136-138. 

China,  257-273,  275-301.  Tlie  land:  ex- 
tent of  Empire,  257;  China  Proper, 
257;  configuration,  258;  coast  line, 
258;  scenery  on  Great  Plain,  258,  259; 
in  southeastern  section,  259;  of 
western  two-thirds,  259;  soil,  260; 
mineral  resources,  260;  roads,  260, 
261;  waterways,  261;  climate,  261.  The 
Chinese:  number  and  distribution, 
262;  economic  value,  262,  263;  homo- 
geneity, 263;  love  for  antiquity,  263, 
264;  Chinese  language,  264;  the  writ- 
ten wen-li,  264,  265;  Chinese  litera- 
ture, 265.  Religions:  Confucianism, 
265,  266;  Buddhism,  266;  Taoism,  266, 
•  267;  ancestra]  worship,  267,  268; 
geomancy  or  feng-shui,  268;  its  power, 
268.  Boxer  Uprising  of  IQOO:  in- 
ducing events  previous  to  that  date, 
268,  269;  the  industrial  factor,  269; 
encroachment  of  foreign  powers,  269, 
270;  greed  of  western  syndicates,  270; 
the  reformers  and  the  outbreak,   270, 


271;  foreign  religion  as  an  irritant, 
271;  religions  of  the  Empire  as  a 
watchcry,  272;  the  outbreak,  272,  273. 
Missionary  force  and  distribution: 
January  i,  1900,  the  date,  273,  276; 
statistics,  276;  provincial  distribution 
of  converts,  276,  277;  leading  men 
and  boards,  277,  278.  Commonest 
methods  of  work:  efforts  for  physical 
alleviation,  279;  day-schools,  279,  280; 
boarding-schools,  280;  colleges,  280; 
education  for  Christian  service,  281; 
preparation  of  Christian  literature, 
281,  282;  manufacture  of  books,  282; 
distribution  of  literature,  282;  chapel 
preaching,  283;  itineration,  283,  284; 
systematic  itineration,  284.  The  Boxers 
and  missions:  why  Protestant  mission- 
aries were  objects  of  disfavor,  284, 
285;  why  Protestant  Christians  were 
hated,  285;  hostility  between  Protes- 
tants and  Catliolics,  285,  286;  mis- 
sionary, martyrdoms,  286;  native 
martyrs  and  their  heroic  deaths,  286, 
287;  harmful  effect  of  persecutions 
upon  native  Church,  287,  288;  compen- 
sations, 288;  God's  providence  and 
care,  288,  289.  The  nczv  regime:  con- 
ditions at  mission  stations,  289,  290; 
Timothy  Richard's  services  as  medi- 
ator, 290;  adjustment  of  indemnities, 
290;  readjustment  of  stations,  290; 
building  and  helper  problems,  291; 
questions  connected  with  lapsed 
church  members,  291;  changes  of 
method  required  by  new  conditions, 
292;  daily  press,  292;  the  new  educa- 
tion, 292,  293;  value  of  the  experienced 
worker,  293.  The  outlook:  govern- 
mental utterances,  293,  294;  Emperor's 
recent  reform  edict,  294;  his  reported 
trust  in  God,  295;  reform  element  in 
the  Empire,  295,  296;  Chinese  con- 
verts a  source  of  hope,  296,  297; 
Viceroy  Chang's  confession  of  need, 
297;  the  Chinese  people  a  hopeful -ele- 
ment in  the  future,  297,  298;  large 
amount  of  interest  in  this  field,  298; 
character  of  missionaries  vindicated, 
298,  299;  women  missionaries  should 
return,  299,  300;  Griffith  John's  ap- 
peal, 300,  301;  districts  unoccupied, 
493,494;  Chinese  in  Australia,  529; 
agitation  for  reform  outside  Empire, 
538,  539-  See  also  Japanese  and 
Chinese    in    Christian    lands. 

Chinese  efforts  for  Borneo,   198,  199. 

Chinese  in  Central  America,  74;  in  West 
Indies,  88;  in  British  Guiana,  127, 
128;  in  Hawaii,  162;  in  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, 186,  187;  in  Straits  Settle- 
ments, 306,  311,  312;  in  Burma,  323, 
324. 

Christianity   in    Malaysia,    188,    189. 

Christians,  importance  of  to  Turkey, 
412,  413. 

Church  attendance  in   Oceania,    152. 

Church  Missionary  Society  in  Labrador, 
29,  30;  in  Canada,  30,  31;  work  for 
Maoris,  176;  in  Ceylon,  339,  340. 

"  Church  of  Jesus  "  in  Mexico,  61. 


562 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


Civilization     in     contact     with     African 

heathenism,   459,   460. 
Colombia,    121;   missions  in,    139. 
Comity   in    Mexico,    62. 
Commerce  and  missions,  156. 
Conferences    in    Oceania,     153,    154;    in 

Tokyo,  1900,  230;  Bombay  Conference 

appeal,    389;    at    Brummana    in    Syria, 

417,   429. 
Confucianism  in  Japan,   216;   in   China, 

265,  266. 
Controversial      literature      essential      in 

Moslem  work,  418. 
Coptic    Christians    in    Africa,    447,    448; 

work  among  them,  456. 
Coral  islands,  143. 
Costa  Rica,  71,  72. 
Creoles  of  Central  America,  73;  of  West 

Indies,   94. 
Cuba,   84,   85;    inhabitants,   88,   89;    mis- 
sions in,    loi,    102. 
Culture,  degree  of  in  Central  America, 

75- 
Curzon,  Lord,  on  Persia's  need,  407. 


Dawes,  ex-Senator,  on  westward  move- 
ment of  Indians,  21,  22. 

Da  yaks,    186. 

Decay  of  lower  races,  24-26;  conflicting 
testimony,  24;  reasons  for  decay,  24; 
can  be  checked,  25;  not  chargeable  to 
missions,  25,  26;  in  South  Seas,  vary- 
ing testimony,  163,  164;  Christianity's 
duty,    164,    165;   in   New  Zealand,    178. 

Denmark's  wise  rule  in  Greenland,  4,  5. 

Diaz,  Dr.  A.  J.,  in  Cuba,  97. 

Difficulties  in  Oceania,  155-157;  in 
Japan,  222,  223;  in  Siam,  313,  314; 
in    India,    361-367. 

Dominic,  the  Abbe,  on  Mexican  Cath- 
olicism,  53. 

Dominion,   see  Canada. 

Drummond,  Henry,  on  main  divisions 
of  Africa,  431;  description  of  African 
scenery,  436;  of  difficulties  of  cara- 
van management,  438;  of  Bantu  ne- 
groes, 442,  444. 

Druses  of   Syria,   412,   416. 

Dube's    appeal    for    Africa,    475,    476. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  mission  work  in. 
See   Malay   Archipelago. 

Dutch  New  Guinea,  missionary  work  in, 


Dwarfs  of  Africa,  445,  446. 


Easter   Island   sculptures,    151. 

Ecuador,  121,  122;  missions  in,  138,  139. 

Education  in  Alaska,  32,  35,  36;  in 
Dominion,  39;  in  the  U.  S.,  42,  43; 
in  Mexico,  49,  50;  in  West  Indies,  89; 
in  Brazil,  131,  132;  forms  useful  in 
Venezuela,  140;  opposed  by  Japanese 
Government,  224-226;  in  China,  279- 
281;  needed  in  New  China.  292, 
293;    government    schools    in    Ceylon, 


329.  330;  educated  classes  of  India, 
370,  379,  work  for  these,  380;  in 
Persia,  403-405;  in  Turkey,  421;  in 
Africa,  467-471;  in  Madagascar,  488; 
among  jews,  522;  of  Japanese  in 
Hawaii,  532,  533.     See  Schools. 

Edwardes,  Commissioner,  his  attitude 
toward  Mohammedan  missions,  511, 
512. 

Egyptian  students'  reasons  for  entering 
religious   work,   469. 

Emigration,  a  Syrian  problem,  423,  424. 

Encouragements  in  mission  work:  in 
Japan,  223,  224,  226-230;  in  Siam,  314; 
in  Africa,  461,  462. 

Eskimos,  9-13,  26-35.  (For  their  lands 
see  Aborigines  of  America).  Names 
and  distribution,  9,  10;  appearance, 
10;  salient  characteristics,  10,  11; 
homes,  11;  social  life,  11,  12;  religion, 
12,  13.  Work  in  Greenland:  historical 
statement,  26;  work  at  Angmagssalik, 
26-28.  In  Labrador:  unusual  condi- 
tions, 28;  spiritual  growth  of  con- 
verts, 29;  their  sins,  29;  medical  ef- 
forts of  I3r.  Grenfell,  29;  Mr.  Peck's 
labors,  29,  30.  In  the  Dominion:  Mr. 
Peck's  work,  30,  31;  Hudson's  Bay 
missionaries,  31;  missions  in  the 
Northwest,  31.  In  Alaska:  reindeer 
stations,  31,  32;  schools,  32;  medical 
missions,  32;  prayer  meetings,  32,  33; 
obstacles  encountered  by  missionaries, 
33;  sore  need  of  Eskimo  missions,  33, 
34;   results  of  work,   34,   35. 

Ethiopian  Movement  in  South  Africa, 
460,  461. 

Eurasians,  labors  for,  in  India,  374,  375. 

Evangelistic  Work:  in  Dominion,  40; 
especially  needed  in  U.  S.  Indian 
work,  43;  in  China,;  282-284;  in  Africa, 
464-466,  471,  472;  in  Madagascar,  488, 
489;  among  Jews,  523;  among  Japanese 
in  Hawaii,   532. 

Evans,  James,  invents  Indian  syllabary, 
40. 

Exposition,  Central  American,  gives 
medal  to  Bible  Society,  78. 


Faber,  E.,  a  leading  China  worker,  277. 

Falklands,    122. 

Farmer  pastors  of  Laos,  317,  318. 

Feng-shui   in    China,    268. 

F'etishism  in  Africa,  449,  450. 


Fields  Practically  Unoccupied,  49 
515.  Countries  partly  evangelisec 
China,  493,  494;  India,  494,  495;  Af 


rica,  495;  South  America,  495,  496. 
Fields  zi'here  work  has  barely  begun. 
Siberia:  the  land,  496;  its  races,  496- 
498.  Russian  non-conformists  in,  507, 
508;  work  of  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  508,  S09.  Central  Asia: 
Turkistan,  498;  Hsin-chiang,  499; 
work  of  Svenska  Missions  Forbundet, 
509.  Tibet:  the  land,  499.  5oo;  Tib- 
etans, 500;  their  religion,  501;  so- 
cieties besieging  Tibet,  510;  journeys 
within  it,  510,  511.    Afghanistan:  the 


563 


land,  SOI,  50.2;  people,  502;  religion, 
502;  missions  to,  511,  512.  Baluchis- 
tan: the  land,  503;  people,  503;  mis- 
sions, 512.  Arabia:  the  land,  503, 
504;  climate,  504;  people,  504,  505; 
religion,  505;  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land's Mission,  512,  513;  work  of  Re- 
formed Church  in  America,  513;  need 
for  missionaries,  513,  514;  mis- 
sionary qualifications,  514.  French 
Indo-China:  the  country,  505,  506; 
people,  506;  religion,  506;  languages, 
507;  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, 514;  Presbyterian  Board,  North, 
^Sis- 
Fiji  statistics,  160. 
Final   outcome,   541-543.      St.    Sophia,  a 

missionary  type,  542. 
Formosa,  218,  219;  233-235.  Island 
described,  218;  its  people,  218,  219; 
cession  to  Japan,  219;  Canadian  Pres- 
byterian missions,  233,  234;  work  of 
English  Presbyterians,  234;  Japanese 
Mission  to  Formosa,  234;  attitude  of 
Japanese  officials  to  missions,  234, 
23s. 


Geomancy  in  China,   268. 

German  Ng^y  Guinea,  work  in,  182,  183. 

Gilbert   Island   superstitions,    151. 

Government,  attitude  toward  Abori- 
gines, in  Greenland,  5;  in  Alaska,  8; 
in  Canada,  20,  21;  in  United  States, 
21-24;  efforts  for  Indians,  20-24;  ef- 
fect of  paternal  form  on  Greenlanders, 
28;  relation  of  U.  S.  to  Alaskans,  31- 
33;  character  of  in  Mexico,  49;  Hol- 
land's relation  to  missions  in  Malaysia, 
195,  196;  apologists  for  Holland,  196; 
relation  of  U.  S.  to  Catholicism  in 
Philippines,  200;  relation  of  Japanese 
Government  to  Christian  education, 
224-226;  its  favorable  legislation,  227; 
Japanese  officials  friendly  to,  in 
Formosa,  234,235;  favorable  in  Korea, 
254;  China  opposed  to  Christianity, 
271,  272;  favorable  to  missions  in 
Siam,  312,  313;  position  in  Turkey, 
424,  425;  French  opposition  in  Mada- 
gascar,  486,  487;   helpful  action,  487, 


Greek   Church,   415,   419,   420. 

Guatemala,  68,  69. 

Guianas,  the  three,   122,   123. 


H 


Haiti^  86,  87;  political  problems,  91. 

Hamilton,  Prof.  J.  T.,  on  trade  mis- 
sions in  Labrador,  etc.,  28. 

Hamites  of  Africa,  441. 

Hau-hau   superstition,    167,    176,    177. 

Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association  in 
South   Sea   work,    159. 

Hawaii,  Japanese  and  Chinese  in  528; 
missions  to  them,   535,   536. 

Health  in  Africa,  439,  440. 


Hinduism  in  Malaysia,  189;  the  popu- 
lar religion  of  India,  359,  360;  work 
for  Branmans,  377,   378. 

Hindus  in  West  Indies,  88;  work  for 
in  West  Indies,  95-97;  in  British 
Guiana,   128. 

Honduras,  6g,  70;  its  President  friendly 
to  missions,  82. 

Hottentots,   445. 

Hova  race  of  Madagascar,  481,  482. 

Hsin-chiang,   275.    See   Central  Asia. 


I 

Immigration  to  Central  American  re- 
publics, 74;  in  South  America,  117- 
119;    in   Argentina,    136. 

Inca  countries,   138,  139. 

Indenture  system  in   West  Indies,   95. 

India,  343-389.  The  land:  position  and 
area,  343,  344;  main  divisions  and 
scenery,  344;  the  Himalaya  region, 
344,  345;  river  plains,  345,  346;  the 
Deccan,  346;  economical  value  of  In- 
dian rivers,  346,  347;  rivers  as  divini- 
ties, 347;  forest  wealth  of  India,  347. 
348;  agricultural  possibilities,  348; 
famines,  348,  349;  climate,  349,  350; 
effect  of  land  upon  inhabitants,  350, 
351.  Peoples  of  India:  general  state- 
ment, 351;  statistics,  351;  race  groups 
and  distribution,  352;  sectional  differ- 
ences, 352,  353;  languages  and  distri- 
bution, 353;  common  physical  char- 
acteristics, 353,  354;  social  character- 
istics, 354;  intellectual  power,  355; 
Hindu  morals,  355;  feminine  charac- 
teristics, 355,  356.  The  village:  de- 
scribed, 356;  its  system,  356.  Caste: 
a  religious  institution,  356,  357;  sub- 
divisions, 357;  advantages  of,  357; 
its  disadvantages,  357,  358.  Religions 
life:  general  statement,  358;  Buddh- 
ism, 358;  Animism,  358;  Alohamme- 
danism,  358,  359;  popular  Hinduism 
defined,  359;  its  basis,  359;  its 
nature  worship,  359,  360;  effects  of 
Hindu    religion,    360.     Obstacles:     im- 


mense      population,       361;       differing 
peoples,  361,  362;  Anglo-Indiar 
Romanists,  362,  363;  reasons  for  their 


ms,  362; 


success,  363;  Hindu  opposition  to  mis- 
sionaries, 363,  364;  to  natives,  364; 
attitude  of  Government,  364;  personal 
character  of  people  an  obstacle,  364, 
365;  power  of  superstition  and  reli- 
gion, 365,  366;  Mohammedan  ob- 
stacles, 366;  caste,  the  problem  of 
problems,  366;  agitation  of  reforms  a 
burden,  367.  Protestant  forces:  com- 
parative statistics  and  map,  367;  so- 
cieties represented,  367;  Sir  William 
Hunter's  characterization  of  the  force, 
368;  Sir  Charles  Elliott's  opinion,  368; 
spiritual  forces.  368,  369;  visiting 
forces  from  Western  lands,  368. 
Classes  tninistered  to:  children's  work, 
369,  370;  work  among  women,  370, 
371;  among  aboriginal  tribes,  371,  372; 
case  of  approach  in  their  case,  372; 
low  caste  work,  372;  accessibility,  372, 


564 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


373;  methods  employed,  373;  im- 
portance of  aboriginal  low  caste  work, 
373.  374;  its  great  success,  374;  efforts 
for  Eurasians,  374;  means  used,  374; 
375;  missions  to  Mohammedans,  375; 
Arabic  College  at  Deoband,  375,  376; 
progress  in  winning  Moslems,  376; 
books  and  methods  found  useful,  377; 
labors  for  Brahmans,  377,  388; 
strategic  value  of  education,  378;  sta- 
tistics, 378,  379;  Indian  students,  379; 
their  religious  status,  379,  380;  what 
can  be  done,  380.  Results  of  missions: 
Indian  Church  strong  numerically, 
381;  intellectual  ability,  381,  382; 
social  condition  of  converts,  382; 
their  moral  condition,  382,  383;  their 
spirituality,  383,  384.  Position  and 
needs:  six  items  in  their  present  posi- 
tion, 384,  385;  nine  specifications  of 
Indian  converts'  wants,  385-387.  Out- 
look: attitude  of  press,  387,  388;  at- 
titude of  non-Christian  masses,  388; 
native  Christians  a  source  of  hope, 
388,  389;  the  missionaries,  389;  two 
Macedonian  calls,  389;  largely  unoc- 
cupied, 494,  495. 

Indian  Commissioners  report  on  Indian 
wrongs,   22-24. 

Indians,  increasing  in  Central  America, 
74;  work  for  in  Dutch  Guiana,  129;  in 
Brazil,  131;  in  Gran  Chaco,  132, 
133;  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela,   141. 

Indians  of  America,  13-24,  35-44-  (For 
their  lands  see  Aborigines  of  Amer- 
ica). People:  leading  tribes  and  dis- 
tribution, 13,  14;  traits,  14;  Indian 
homes,  14,  15;  communal  houses,  15; 
South  American  homes,  16;  languages, 
16;  Indian  literature,  16,  17;  social 
conditions,  17-19.  Religions:  the  to- 
tem, 19;  physitheism,  19;  other  fea- 
tures, 19;  Messiah  Craze  of  1890,  19, 
20;  Indian  medicine  men,  20.  Gov- 
ernment efforts  for:  in  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  20,  21;  reservation  life  in 
the  United  States,  22;  wrongs,  22-23. 
Mission  work  in  Alaska :_  schools,  35, 
36;  itineration,  36;  medicine,  36;  Wil- 
liam Duncan's  mission,  37;  secret  of 
his  success,  38.  /»  the  Dominion: 
government  statistics,  38,  39;  its 
school  system,  39;  isolation  of  Indian 
workers,  40;  evangelistic  labors,  40; 
problems,  41.  In  the  United  States: 
government  effort  for  Indians,  41;  so- 
cieties and  their  location,  41,  42;  mis- 
sion schools,  42,  43;  evangelistic  ef- 
fort, 43;  value  of  object  lessons,  43; 
Association  work  for  young  Indians, 
43,  44;  government  testimony  to 
value  of  Indian  missions,  44;  of 
South  America,   116. 

Indios   barbaros,   73. 

Indios  mansos,  72. 

Industrial  schools:  in  Sitka,  35,-  36;  in 
Canada,  39;  in  South  Seas,  162;  essen- 
tial in  Africa,  469,  470;  in  Jewish 
missions,   522. 

Insane  asylum  in  Syria,  423. 

Intemperance    in    Africa,    474. 

Itineration:   in   Alaska,    36;    in   Mexico, 


60;     from     central     islands     as     head- 
quarters, 153;  in  China,  283,  284. 


Jackson,  Sheldon,  secures  establish- 
ment of  reindeer  stations  in  Alaska, 
31;  iMaskan  Eskimos'  need  of  gospel, 
3i,  34- 

Jacobites,  416. 

Jamaica,  85,  86. 

Japan,  204-217,  219-231.  The  land: 
location  and  leading  islands,  204,  205; 
main  physical  features,  205;  agricul- 
ture, 205,  206;  a  land  of  flowers,  206; 
highways,  206;  Inland  Sea,  206; 
earthquakes,  206,  207;  typhoons, 
207;  climate,  207.  The  Japanese: 
their  origin,  208;  the  Ainu,  208,  209; 
physical  development,  209;  social  con- 
ditions, 209,  210;  mental  capacity, 
210;  aesthetic  development,  210; 
patriotism,  210,  211;  idealism,  211; 
their  weaknesses,  211,  212.  Language 
and  literature:  language  affiliations, 
212;  varieties  of  speech  and  writing, 
212;  language  difficulties  confronting 
missionaries,  213;  Japanese  literature, 
213,  214.  Religions  and  morals: 
Shintoism,  214;  its  temples,  215; 
Buddhism,  215;  Shin  sect  of  Buddh- 
ists, 215;  Reformed  Buddhism's 
methods,  216;  Confucianism,  216; 
Kurozumi,  a  Shinto  sect,  216;  the 
Tenrikyo  sect,  216.  Moral  defects  of 
Japanese  character :  impurity,  217;  un- 
truthfulness, 217;  dishonesty,  217;  in- 
temperance, 217.  Epitome  of  Prot- 
estant progress:  the  first  church  of 
1872,  219,  220;  period  of  Protestant 
popularity,  220;  the  reaction,  220, 
221.  Missions  to-day:  forces  engaged, 
221,  222;  missionary  statistics,  222; 
discouragements,  222,  2.^3;  aids  and 
encouragements,  223,  224;  government 
attitude  toward  religious  education, 
224;  seriousness  of  educational  prob- 
lem, 224;  alleviating  considerations, 
225,  226.  The  outlook:  attitude  of 
Shintoism  to  missions,  226;  of  Buddh- 
ism, 226,  227;  of  the  Government,  227; 
condition  of  the  churches,  227;  spirit 
of  unity  among  denominations,  227- 
229;  permeating  influence  on  society 
of  missions,  229;  inadequacy  _  of  the 
missionary  force,  229,  230;  reenforce- 
ments  needed,  230;  Mr.  Mott's  work 
among  students,,  231.  See  Japanese 
and  Chinese  in  Christian  lands. 

Japanese  and  Chinese  in  Christian 
Lands,  527-540.  The  Japanese:  their 
distribution,  527;  their  rank  outside  of 
America,  528;  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  528;  opposition  to  them, 
530;  religious  condition,  531;  leading 
societies  laboring  for  them,  532; 
methods  in  Hawaii,  532,  533;  in 
America,  533,  534;  results  of  mission 
work,  534;  duty  concerning,  540. 
The  Chinese:  where  found,  527,  528; 
industrial  and  social  condition  outside 


INDEX 


565 


of  America,  528,  529;  in  United 
States,  529,  530;  their  secret  societies, 
530;  opposition  to  them,  530,  531; 
religious  condition,  531;  societies  labor- 
ing among  them,  534,  535;  work  in 
Australia,  535;  in  Hawaiian  Islands, 
535.  536;  in  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, 536-539;  voluntary  work,  536; 
rnissionary  society  effort,  537;  Chris- 
tian Associations,  537,  538;  caring  for 
the  children,  538;  the  press,  538;  re- 
form societies,  538,  539;  results,  539; 
statistics,  539,  540;  our  duty,  540. 

Java,    194. 

Jesuits  in  Turkey,   426,   427. 

Jews,  Missions  to  the,  516-526.  Num- 
ber and  distribution:  statistics,  516; 
chief  Jewish  centers,  516-518.  Mod- 
ern renaissance :  conditions  preceding 
it,  518;  Mendelssohn's  life  and  ser- 
vices, 518,  519.  Sects  to-day:  Ortho- 
dox, 519;  Reformed,  519;  Chassidim, 
519,  520;  Karaites,  520;  Crypto-Jews, 
520;  Pseudo-Jews,  520.  Recent  Jew- 
ish movements :  colonization,  520; 
Zionism,  520,  521.  Missionary  force 
and  distribution :  societies,  521;  places 
of  greatest  need,  521,  522.  Methods: 
social  and  industrial  efforts,  522;  edu- 
cation, 522;  literature  and  its  use,  522, 
523;  evangelistic  work,  523;  medicine, 
523;  kind  of  men  needed,  523,  524. 
Outlook:  from  Jewish  standpoint,  524; 
from  that  of  missionaries,  524;  large 
number  of  converts  who  are  mission- 
aries, 525.  Christian  obligation:  duty 
of  Church,  525;  of  the  individual,  526; 
in  Argentine  Republic,   134. 

John,  Griffith,  on  China's  future,  300, 
301. 

Judson,  Mrs.,  a  pioneer  worker  for 
Siamese,  313. 


Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land,  see  German 
New   Guinea. 

Kanakas  of  Oceania,  179,  180. 

Karaites,  520. 

Karens  in  Burma,  323;  mission  work 
for,  331,  332,   333.  334- 

Keith-Falconers  work  in   Arabia,   513. 

Korea.  236-256.  The  land:  character  of 
interior,  236,  237;  the  coasts,  237; 
climate  and  health,  237.  Resources: 
agricultural  wealth,  237,  238;  min- 
erals, 238;  ocean  products,  238.  Peo- 
ple: number  and  general  appearance, 
238-240;  homes,  240;  women,  240,  241; 
Koreans  at  work,  241;  pleasures,  241; 
caste,  242;  education,  242;  language, 
243;  literature,  243.  Religions:  gen- 
eral statement,  243,  244;  ancestral 
worship,  244;  spirit  worship,  244,  245; 
the  Shaman,  245.  New  Korea :  fea- 
tures of  the  new  regime,  245,  246; 
political  problems,  246;  industrial  dif- 
ficulties, 246,  247.  Missionary  be- 
ginnings: entrance  from  Manchuria, 
247,  248;  Presbyterian  Board,  North, 
and    Dr.    Allen,   248;    the   preparatory 


work,  248.  Present  missionary  force: 
societies,  2^9;  distribution  of  forces, 
249;  prominence  of  natives  in  the 
work,  249,  250.  Prevailing  policy  of 
work:  Dr.  Nevius's  influence,  250; 
difficulties  which  the  plan  aims  to 
meet,  250,  251;  leading  principles  of 
scheme  adopted,  252,  253;  difficulties 
encountered,  253;  success  of  plan, 
253,  254.  Hopeful  outlook:  govern- 
ment favor,  254;  strength  of  leading 
Christians,  254,  255;  Mrs.  Bishop's 
account  of  the  missionary  situation, 
255;   her  appeal,   255,   256. 

Kurile  Chain,  beginning  of  mission 
work   on,   231. 

Kurozumi,  a  Shinto  sect,  216. 


Labor  traffic  in  South  Seas,   156. 

Labrador;  name,  5;  area,  5;  topography, 
5;  geology,  5;  resources,  5,  6;  govern- 
mental control,  6;   missions  in,  28-30. 


Lambeth  Encyclical  letter  of  1897  con- 
cerning the  Tews,  525. 

Languages:  of  Indians,  16;  of  Oceania, 
149;  of  Korea,  240-243;  of  China,  264, 
265;  of  Siam  and  Laos,  305,  306;  of 
India,  353;  of  Persia,  394;  of  Mada- 
gascar, 482. 

Lantern,  magic,  used  in  mission  work, 
30. 

Laos.  Meaning  of  name,  302;  country 
described,  302;  inhabitants,  305;  lan- 
guage, 305.  Laos  missions:  differ- 
ences between  Laos  and  Siam,  314, 
315;  presumption  in  favor  of  Christi- 
anity, 315;  practical  workings  of  this 
belief,  315,  316;  methods  employed, 
316;  self-support  and  independence, 
316,  317;  the  churches,  317;  training 
classes,  317;  farmer  pastors,  317,  318; 
large  influence  of  missionaries  in  the 
country,  318;  native  Christians  evan- 
gelize   French    Indo-China,    515. 

Lawes  on  conditions  in  Savage  Island, 
158. 

'    Lemuria,     a  name  of  Madagascar,  480. 

Leper  work  in   Colombia,   140. 

Liberal  minority  in  South  America,  125. 

Literacy  of  Central  Americans,   75. 

Literary  Work  in  China,  281,  282; 
value  in  Turkey,  418,  422;  in  Africa, 
466;  value  of  literature  in  Baluchistan, 
512;   use  in  Jewish   work,  522,  523. 

London  a  great  Jewish  center,  516,  517. 

London  Missionary  Society  in  Oceania, 
157,    158;   in   New  Guinea,   180,    i8i. 

Loochoo,  see   Riukiu. 

Lovedale  a  typical  industrial  institution, 
470. 

Low  caste  missionary  effort  in  India, 
372,  373- 


M 

MacGregor,    Sir    William,    on    work    in 

New  Guinea,  181,  182. 
Madagascar,      477-484,      486-490.    From 


566 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


coast  to  capital:  littoral  region,  477; 
forest  belt,  477.  478;  interior  high- 
lands, 478,  479;  Antananarivo,  479, 
480;  peculiar  features  of  Madagascar, 
480.  The  people:  chief  races,  480;  the 
Sakalaves,  480,  481;  the  Hovas,  481; 
characteristics  of  Malagasy  life,  481; 
the  language,  482.  Religion:  ancient 
forms,  482;  truthful  elements,  482, 
483;  "  Proverbs  of  the  Ancients," 
483.  Missionary  labors:  political  con- 
dition, 485,  486;  relieving  factors, 
487;  societies,  487,  488;  education, 
488;  evangelistic  effort,  488,  489;  the 
resultant  gain,  489. 

Madeira  Islands,  484;  mission  work,  492. 

Malay  Archipelago,  184-203.  Groups 
described:  area  and  ownership,  184; 
physical  features,  184,  185;  vegetation, 
185;  climate,  185.  Inhabitants :  the 
Melanesians,  186;  Malays,  186;  Chi- 
nese, 187;  Europeans  and  those  as- 
similated to  them,  187;  descendants  of 
Arabs,  187;  Spaniards  in  Philippines, 
187,  188;  influence  of  United  States, 
188;  Netherland's  colonial  administra- 
tion, 188.  Religion:  partial  failure  of 
Christianity  in  Dutch  possessions,  188, 
189;  Mohammedanism  there,  189; 
heathen  religions  in  Dutch  posses- 
sions, 189;  ancient  power  of  India's 
religion,  189;  religious  condition  of 
Philippines,  189,  190;  Christianized 
Indians  of  Philippines,  190.  Missions 
in  Dutch  possessions :  extent  of  field, 
191;  government  Church  of  East 
Indies,  191;  missionary  societies  and 
their  fields,  191;  work  in  Dutch 
Borneo,  192;  in  smaller  islands,  192, 
193;  in  Sumatra,  193;  in  Java,  194; 
Dutch  missionary  methods,  194,  195; 
Dr.  Callenbach's  defense,  195;  Gov- 
ernment and  missions,  195,  196; 
apologists  for  the  Government,  196. 
Missions  in  British  Borneo:  labors  of 
Plymouth  Brethren,  197;  of  Society 
for  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  197, 
198;  need  of  medical  effort,  198; 
missions    of    Chinese    Christians,     198, 

199.  Missions  in  the  Philippines: 
workers  mainly  American,  199;  Spain's 
preparation  of  the  soil,  199;  efforts 
of  the  United  States  Government,  200; 
its    relation    to     the     Roman     Church, 

200,  201 ;  beginnings  of  Protestant 
missions,  201;  union  of  Protestant 
forces,  201,  202;  future  of  missions  in 
Philippines,    202,    203. 

McLean,  A.,  quoted  on  Cuban  situation, 
99- 

Malagasy,   480-482. 

Manchuria,  the  country,  273;  its  peo- 
ple,  274. 

Maoris  of  New  Zealand,  166,  167;  work 
for,    1^5-178. 

Mapuches,   137. 

Mariolatry:  in  Mexico,  58;  in  Central 
America,   76,   81. 

Maronites,    416. 

Marquesas  Islands,  immorality  in,  159, 
165. 

Massacres  of  1900  in  China,  286-289. 


Mauritius,  484;  societies  there,  490;  dif- 
ficult work,  490;   its   fruitage,  491. 

Medical  missions:  in  Alaska,  32,  36;  in 
West  Indies,  100,  loi;  in  Borneo,  198; 
in  China,  279;  in  Persia,  405-407;  in 
Turkey,  422,  423;  in  Africa,  462-464; 
among  Jews,   523. 

Melanesian   Mission,    161,    162. 

Melanesians,    147,    148,    186. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses  Mendel,  and  the 
Jewish  renaissance,  518,  519. 

Mestizos:  in  Mexico,  49;  in  Central 
America,    72,    73. 

Methodist    Board,    North,    in    Uraguay, 

,133.    134;   in   Burma,   335. 

Methods  of  missionary  work:  in  Green- 
land, 27;  trade  in  Labrador,  28;  H.  W. 
Brown  on  Mexican  methods,  59,  60. 

Metlakahlta,  a  model  Indian  town,  37, 
38;    fifteen   regulations   of,    38. 

Mexico,  45-66.  Scenery  and  climate: 
tierras  calientes,  45;  tierras  tem- 
pladas,  45,  46;  tierras  frias,  46;  rains, 
46;  attractiveness  of  Mexico,  46,  47. 
Mineral  wealth,  47.  Inhabitants: 
Spaniards,  47;  English,  Germans  and 
Barcelonnettes,  48;  Americans,  48; 
the  aboriginal  Indian  races,  48,  49; 
mixed  races  or  mestizos,  49;  hopeful 
features,  stable  Government,  49;  edu- 
cation, 49,  50;  diseases  of  inhabitants, 
50.  _  Historical  races:  Aztecs,  50,  51; 
their  material  advancement,  51;  pres- 
ent descendants,  51;  Mayas,  51,  52. 
Religion:  its  early  forms,  52;  religion 
of  Conquistadores,  52,  53;  present  re- 
ligious conditions,  53.  Missions:  gen- 
eral statement,  53,  54;  force,  54.  Gen- 
eral situation:  semi-pagan  Indians,  54, 
55;  Romanists,  55;  liberal  party,  55; 
Protestantism,  55.  Character  of_  people 
and  evils:  helpful  characteristics,  55, 
56;  opposing  factors,  56;  how  to  over- 
come them,  57.  Religion  and  ethics  and 
missions:  Romanism,  57;  helpful  ele- 
ments of,  57;  views  difficult  to  com- 
bat, 57,  58;  power  of  priesthood,  58; 
Christian  strategics:  point  of  least  re- 
sistance, 59;  most  useful  methods,  59, 
60;  itineration,  60.  Denominations 
and  missions:  helpful  features  of  de- 
nominational polity,  60,  61;  of  doc- 
trine, 61;  peculiar  features  of  differ- 
ent Churches,  61,  62;  hopeful  elements, 
62.  Influence  of  Protestant  lands: 
material  advantages,  62,  63;  disadvan- 
tages of  this  contact,  63;  results  of 
missionary  work,  63,  64.  Outlook: 
Romanism  and  national  problem,  64; 
educational  problem,  64;  native 
Church,  65;  solution  of  problems,  65; 
elements   inspiring   hope,   65,    66. 

Micronesians,    148,    149. 

Mill,  H.  R.,  on  Oceania,  145. 

Missionary  Force:  in  Greenland,  26, 
27;  in  Labrador,  28-30;  in  Dominion, 
30,  31,  38>  39;  in  Alaska,  32,  35; 
among  U.  S.  Indians,  41,  42;  in 
Mexico,  54;  in  Central  America,  77;  in 
West  Indies,  92,  93;  in  Paraguay,  132; 
in  Japan,  221,  222;  in  Korea,  249;  in 
China,  275-278;  in  Straits  Settlements, 


INDEX 


567 


308;  in  Siam,  312;  in  Ceylon,  336, 
337;  in  India,  367,  368;  in  Turkish 
Empire,  416,  417;  in  Africa,  453-456; 
in  Madagascar,  487,  488;  in  Japanese 
work  outside  Japan,  532;  in  Chinese 
work    outside    China,    534,    535. 

Missionary  Methods  in  general:  in 
Australia,  178,  179;  of  Dutch  socie- 
ties, 194,  195;  Dr.  Nevius'  plan  modi- 
fied in  Korea,  250254;  in  Laos,  316. 

Mission  ships:  "Harmony"  of  Mora- 
vians, 28;  in  South  Seas,   153,  161. 

Modern  thought,  effect  of  on  Central 
American   Catholicism,   tt. 

Mohammedanism:  in  Malaysia,  189;  in 
India,  358,  359,  366;  missions  in  India, 
375-377;  sects  in  Persia,  397-399;  in 
Turkey,  413-415;  work  for  Moslems  in 
Turkey,  417,  418;  in  Africa,  448,  449; 
work  for  African  Moslems,  457,  458; 
in  Afghanistan,  502;  in  Baluchistan, 
503;    in   Arabia,    505. 

Mongolia,  the  land,  274;  character  of 
Mongols,  275. 

Moravians:  withdrawal  from  Green- 
land, 26;  work  in  Labrador,  28,  29;  in 
Mosquitia,  77,  78;  in  Dutch  Guiana, 
128,  129. 

Mosquitia,  71. 

Mott,  J.  R.,  in  Japan,  231. 

Muir,  Sir  William,  on  Indian  Chris- 
tians, 383. 


Nansen  on  cause  of  Greenlander's  decay, 
25;  charges  against  missionaries,  re- 
futed, 25. 

Native  agency  of  Oceania,   154. 

Native  Church  of  Oceania,  154,  155; 
its  members  active  in  Korea,  249,  250. 

Nature  Religions:  of  Oceania,  150,  151; 
of  Australia,  170,  171;  of  New  Guinea, 
174,  175;  in  Malaysia,  189.  Spirit 
worship  in  Korea,  244;  in  China,  268; 
modified  Buddhism  in  Siam,  307,  308; 
Animism  in  India;  358,  nature  wor- 
ship in  India,  359,  360;  in  Africa,  449, 
450;  in  Madagascar,  482,  483;  in 
Siberia,  497,  498;  of  Eskimos,  12,  13; 
of  N.  American  Indians,  19,  20;  in 
Mexico,    52,    53. 

Negroes,  work  for,  in  West  Indies,  93- 
95;  in  Dutch  Guiana,  129;  of  Africa, 
442;  the  Bantu  stock,  442-444. 

Nestorians,  work  for,  401. 

Netherland's  colonial  administration  in 
Malay   Archipelago,    188. 

Neuendettelsau  Mission  in  German  New 
Guinea,   182,   183. 

Nevius,  Dr.,  his  method  in  Korea,  250- 
254;   in   China,   284;   in   Laos,   316. 

New  Guinea.  171-175,  180-183.  Area 
and  political  divisions,  171,  172;  phys- 
ical features  and  climate,  172;  scenery, 
172;  unhealthfulness,  172,  173;  people 
of,  four  main  elements,  173;  physical 
characteristics,  173;  homes.  173,  174; 
religion,  174,  175;  missions  in  Dutch 
New  Guinea,  180;  L.  M.  S.  in  Brit- 
ish New  Guinea,   180,   j8i;  Australian 


Wesleyans,  i8r,  182;  Sir  W.  McGre- 
gor's testimony  as  to  work  of  societies, 
182;  Neuendettelsau  Mission  in  Ger- 
man Guinea,  182,  183;  Rhenish  Mis- 
sionary  Society's  labors  there,    183. 

New   Hebrides,    160,    161. 

New  Zealand,  166,  167,  175-178.  The 
land,  166,  167;  its  climate,  167;  in- 
habitants, 167;  beginnings  of  missions, 
175,  176;  varied  experiences  of  the 
C.  M.  S.,  176;  war  and  missions,  176; 
Hau-hau  superstition  and  missions,  176, 
177;  future  of  the  Maoris,  178. 

Nicaragua,   70,   71. 

Nile,  433,  434. 


Obeahism,  94. 

Oceania,  142-165.  Physically  consid- 
ered: great  subdivisions,  142.  143; 
volcanic  islands,  143;  elevatea  coral 
islands,  14^,  144;  atolls,  144;  scenery 
of  South  Seas,  144,  145;  climate,  145, 
146;  diseases  affecting  natives,  146; 
physical  calamities  of  islands,  146,  147. 
Oceanic  peoples:  their  number,  147, 
the  Melanesians  or  Papuans,  147,  148; 
Polynesians  or  Sawaiori,  148;  Micro- 
nesians  or  Tarapons,  148,  149.  Oceanic 
languages,  149.  Religions:  of  the 
Melanesians,  150;  of  the  Polynesians, 
150,  151;  of  the  Micronesians,  151. 
Political  and  economic  conditions:  their 
ownership,  152;  jurisdiction,  152. 
Points  common  to  most  missions:  cen- 
tral headquarters,  153;  missionary 
ships,  153;  conferences  with  helpers, 
153,  154;  native  agency,  154;  favor- 
able characteristics  of  native  Church, 
IS4>  155;  self-support,  155.  Obstacles 
to  missionary  effort :  those  due  to 
commerce,  155,  156;  those  arising  from 
labor  traffic,  156;  from  Romanism, 
157.  Societies  and  typical  work: 
London  Missionary  Society's  labors, 
157.  158;  on  Savage  Island,  158; 
American  Board's  missions,  158,  159; 
on  Guam  and  in  Micronesia, _  159; 
Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association, 
159;  Australasian  Methodist  labors, 
160;  work  of  various  Presbyterian 
bodies,  160,  161;  the  Melanesian  Mis- 
sions, 161,  162;  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel,  162;  Paris  Mis- 
sionary Society,  162.  Oceania's  fu- 
ture: opposite  views,  163,  164;  Chris- 
tianity's  duty,    164,    165. 

Oodoov'ille  Girls'  Boarding  School,  338, 
339- 

Oriental  Churches,  412,  415,  427. 

Osmanli   Turks,  411. 

Outlook  in   Central  America,  82. 


Papua,   Papuan,   see   Micronesia,   Micro- 
nesians. 
Paraguay,   123;   missions  in,   132,   133. 


568 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 


Pans  Missionary  Society,  in  South  Seas, 
162. 

Parsees  of  Persia,  399,  400. 

Patagonia,   120;  missions  in,  135,  136. 

Patteson,  Bishop,   161. 

Persecution,  see  massacres. 

Persia,  390-407.  The  land:  general 
features,  390,  391;  cities  described 
391;  villages,  391,  392;  climate,  393: 
physical  calamities,  393.  People:  racial 
divisions,  393,  394;  language,  394 
homes  of  masses,  394-396;  condition  o 
women,  396;  political  condition,  396 
397-  Religions:  Shiites,  397,  398; 
Babism,  398;  Sufism,  399;  Parsees. 
399,  400.  Missionary  societies:  Pres 
byterian  Board,  North,  400;  Arch 
bishop's  Mission,  400,  401;  activities 
of  its  missionaries,  401;  their  hope, 
401;  Assyrian  Mission  Committee,  401; 
London  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tianity Amongst  the  Jews,  401,  402 
methods  of  work,  402;  Church  Mis 
sionary  Society,  402;  the  Bible  socie- 
ties, 403;  minor  missions,  403.  Char- 
acteristic methods:  necessity  of  educa- 
tional work,  403,  404;  two  missionary 
institutions,  404;  educational  work 
cosmopolitan  and  influential,  404,  405; 
medical  labors,  405;  Dr.  Cochran's  in- 
fluence, 406;  medical  work  for  women, 
407.     The  outlook,  407. 

Peru,   123;  missions  in,   138. 

Philippines,   see    Malay   Archipelago. 

Physitheism  of  Red  Indians,   19. 

Pictures  not  comprehensible  to  Africans. 
468. 

Pilkington's  Appeal  for  Africa,  475. 

Plymouth    Brethren    in    Borneo,    197. 

Politics  in  Africa,  452,  453. 

Polygamy:  among  Indians,  17;  in  Af- 
rica, 472. 

Polynesians,    148. 

Pope   Leo's  encyclical  letter,   126. 

Porto  Rico,  85. 

Poverty  an  obstacle  in  Chile,  136,  137. 

Presbyterian  Board,  North,  in  Guate- 
rnala,  79,  80;  in  Korea,  248;  in  Per- 
sia, 400,  404-406. 

Presbyterian  work  in  New  Hebrides,  160, 
161. 

Press,  an  influential  factor  in  China, 
292;  at  Beirut,  422;  of  India  friendly 
to  missions,  387. 

Printing   in    China,    282. 

Problems  of  missions:  in  Canada,  41;  in 
Mexico,  64,  65;  in  Patagonia,  135,  136; 
in    China,    290,    291;    in    Turkish    Em- 

,  Pire,  423-427;   in  Africa,   461. 
Proverbs  of  the  Ancients  "  of  Mada- 
gascar, 483. 


R 

Reformers  in  China,  270,  271,  295. 

Reindeer  stations  in  Alaska,  31,  32. 

Religions.  See  Abyssinian  Christians, 
Ancestral  worship,  Armenian  Church, 
Buddhism,  Catholicism,  Confucianism, 
Coptic  Christianity,  Druses,  Greek 
Church,  Hinduism,  Jews,  Mohammed- 


anism, Nature  religions.  Shamanism, 
Shintoism,   Taoism. 

Renaissance,  the  Jewish,  518,  519. 

Results  of  missionary  work:  in  Green- 
land, zy,  28;  in  Labrador,  29;  in 
Mexico,  63,  64;  Eskimo  missions,  34, 
35 ;   in  Central  America,  81,  82. 

Revivals  among  Japanese  in  America, 
533: 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society  in  New 
Guinea,   183. 

Richard,  Timothy,  a  leading  missionary 
in   China,   zyy,   290. 

Rijnhart,  Dr.  and  Mrs.,  entrance  into 
Tibet,    511. 

Rink,  Dr.,  on  number  and  distribution 
of  the  Eskimos,  10;  on  their  religion, 
12,  13;  on  Greenlander's  change  of 
food,  24,  25;  testimony  concerning 
missionaries,    25,    26. 

Riukiu,  or  Loochoo  Islands,  218;  mis- 
sionary work,  231,  232. 

Rodrigues  Islands,  484. 

Romanists,  work  for,  in  West  Indies, 
97-102;   opposition  of  Church,  97,  98. 

Russia  in  Persia,  401;  in  Turkey,  425, 
426. 

Russian  non-conformists  in  Siberia,  507, 
508. 

Russia,  the  great  Jewish  center,  si7» 
518. 


Sakalavas  of  Madagascar,  481. 

Salvador,   70. 

Samoa,    150,   157,    158. 

Santo  Domingo,  86,  iy. 

Sattianadhan  on  Indian  Christians,  382. 

Savage  Island,    158. 

Sawaiori,    see    Polynesians. 

Schools:  in  Alaska,  z^'t  among  Alaskan 
Indians,  35,  36;  in  the  Dominion,  39; 
among  Indians  of  U.    S.,  42,  43. 

Secret  societies  of  Chinese  in  America, 
530. 

Self-support:  in  Oceania,  155;  in  Korea, 
253.  254;  in  Straits  Settlements,  319, 
320;  in  Laos,  316-318;  in  Turkey,  428. 

Selwyn,   Bishop,    161. 

Semitic   races   of  Africa,  440,   441. 

Senussi  Brotherhood,  414,  415,449,457. 

Seychelles  Archipelago,  484;  missionary 
efforts  there,  491. 

Shamanism:  among  Eskimos,  12,  13;  in 
Korea,  245;  in  Burma,  323. 

Shiites  of  Persia,  397,  398. 

Shin  sect  of  Buddhism,  215. 

Shintoism,   214,  215,  226. 

SiAM.  Local  name,  302;  area,  302;  con- 
figuration, 302;  scenery,  303;  climate 
and  health,  303,  304;  people,  304,  305; 
language,  305,  306;  social  conditions, 
306,  307;  Buddhism,  the  state  religion, 
307;  spirit  worship,  307,  308.  Siamese 
missions:  societies  engaged,  312;  gov- 
ernment favor,  312,  313;  pioneer  work 
of  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union, 
313;    small    results    of    Siamese    mis- 


sions, 313,  314. 
Sisters  ot  Bethan 


ethany,  403. 


INDEX 


5^9 


Sitka  training  and  Industrial  School, 
35,  36. 

Slavery:  among  Indians,  18;  in  Africa, 
472. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel: in  Central  America,  79;  in  South 
Seas,  162;  in  Borneo,  197,  198;  in 
Burma,  333,  334;  in  Nicobar  and  An- 
daman   Islands,    334,    335;    in    Ceylon, 

^340,  341- 

South  America,  103-141.  Panoramic 
view  of,  103,  104.  River  systems,  104- 
106;  highlands  and  mountains,  106- 
109;  habitable  plains,  1 09-1 13;  wastes 
and  deserts,  113,  114.  Productions: 
minerals  and  metals,  114,  115;  forest 
products,  115;  field  products,  115; 
Prof.  Reinsch's  view  of  South  Ameri- 
can wealth,  115.  Races:  Dr.  Her- 
bertson's  summary,  116;  their  social 
condition,  116,  117;  immigration,  117- 
119.  Characteristtc  features  of  differ- 
ent countries:  Argentine  Republic  and 
Patagonia,  119,  120;  Bolivia,  120; 
Brazil,  120,  121;  Chile,  121;  Colom- 
bia, 121;  Ecuador,  121,  122;  the  Falk- 
lands  and  South  Georgia,  122;  the 
three  Guianas,  122,  123;  Paraguay, 
123;  Peru,  123;  Uruguay,  123;  Vene- 
zuela, 124.  Features  common _  to  mis- 
sion work  in  all  the  republics:  evi- 
dences of  religiosity,  124,  125;  aliena- 
tion of  a  minority  from  Catholicism, 
125;  helpful  factors,  125;  fruits  of  a 
former  religion,  125,  126;  missionary 
methods,  126,  127.  Work  in  different 
sections:  societies  engaged,  127;  work 
in  British  Guiana,  127,  128;  success 
among  the  Chinese,  127,  128;  Hindu 
work,  128;  efforts  for  negroes  and 
aboriginal  Indians,  128;  Dutch  Guiana 
missions,  128,  129;  among  negroes  in 
the  bush  and  in  towns,  129;  work  for 
Indians,  129;  missions  in  Brazil,  129- 
132;  societies  engaged  and  their  loca- 
tion, 129,  130;  large  work  among  Pro- 
testant foreigners,  130;  education,  130, 
131;  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, 131;  need  of  Indian  missions, 
131,  132;  work  in  Paraguay,  132,  133; 
^mong  Indians  of  the  Grand  Chaco, 
132..  133;.  prospects  for  future,  133; 
missions  in  Uruguay,  133,  134;  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  134-136;  South 
American  Missionary  Society's  labors, 
134.  135;  Patagonian  missions,  135, 
136;  marked  characteristic  of  the  Ar- 
gentine situation,  136;  Chilian  mis- 
sions, 136-138;  condition  of  the  people, 
136,  137;  work  of  Methodists,  Presbv- 
terians  and  South  American  Mission- 
ary Society,  137,  138;  missions  in  the 
Inca  countries,  138,  139;  societies  rep- 
resented, 138;  the  need  of  missions  to 
the  Incan  races,  139;  Colombian  mis- 
sions, 139,  140;  work  in  Venezuela. 
140;  claims  of  Colombia's  lepers  and 
Venezuelan  Indians,  140,  141;  dis- 
tricts unoccupied.  495,  496. 
South    American    Missionary    Society   in 

Argentina  and  Patagonia,  134,  135. 
Southern   Cross,   mission  ship,    161. 


South  Georgia,   122. 

Spaniards:  of  Mexico,  47,  48;  in  Philip- 
pines,   187,    188. 

Spanish  evangelization  in  Central  Amer- 
ica, 81. 

Stead's  statement  of  Africa's  civilizing 
forces,    453. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  on  South  Sea  scenery, 
144,    145- 

"Straits-born"    Chinese,    311,    312. 

Straits  Settlement.  Malay  Peninsula, 
303;  Chinese  immigrants,  306;  socie- 
ties engaged,  308;  distinguishing  feat- 
ures of  work,  308,  309;  self-support, 
309;  does  not  lead  to  loss  of  inde- 
pendence, 309,  310;  promising  outlook, 
310,  311;  Malays  described,  311; 
"Straits-born"    Chinese,   311,   312. 

Sufism  in   Persia,   399. 

Sumatra,  193. 

Sumner,  Bishop,  concerning  duty  to 
Jews,   526. 

Sunnites,  413,  414. 

Surinam,  see  Dutch  Guiana. 

Svenska  Missionsforbundet  in  Hsin- 
chiang,  509. 


Tabu  in   Polynesia,   151. 

Taoism  in  China,  266,  267. 

Tarapon,   see    Micronesians. 

Tenrikyo  sect  of  Japan,  216. 

Tibet,  275. 

Tokyo,  a  missionary  center,  229,  230. 

Totems  of  Red  Indians,   19. 

Trade  as  a  feature  of  Moravian  missions, 
28. 

Training  of  evangelists  in  Africa,  471, 
472. 

Traveling  in  Africa,  437,  438. 

Tripoli,   410. 

Turkish  Empire,  408-430.  Divisions 
and  area;  Turkey's  immediate  posses- 
sions, 408;  its  tributary  countries,  408. 
The  land;_  European  strip  described, 
409;  Asiatic  Turkey,  409;  Arabian  pos- 
sessions, 409,  410;  Tripoli  and  Ben- 
gazi,  410;  climate,  410.  Races;  the 
name  Turk  objected  to,  410;  the  Os- 
manlis,  411;  other  Moslem  races,  411, 
412;  the  Christians,  412;  their  im- 
portance to  the  Empire,  412,  413.  Re- 
ligions; enumerated,  413;  the  Sun- 
nites, 413,  414;  Senussi  fraternity, 
414..  415;  Greek  Church,  415;  Ar- 
menian Church,  415,  416;  the  Druses, 
416;  smaller  churches,  416.  The  mis- 
sionary societies:  nationality  and 
number,  417;  outstanding  character- 
istics, 417.  Classes  ministered  to: 
work  for  Moslems  private,  417,  418; 
value  of  controversial  and  other  litera- 
ture. 418;  work  among  Oriental 
Churches,  419;  two  main  bodies  dif- 
ferentiated, 419;  obstacles  found  in 
Greek  Church,  419,  420;  Bulgarian 
branch  of  Greek  Church,  420;  Arme- 
nian Church,  420.  Most  successful 
methods:  education,  421;  Beirut  press, 
422;   literary  work,  422;   medical  mis- 


;:;c' 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   PROTfiSTANT   MISSIONS 


sions,  422,  423;  insane  asylum,  423. 
Problems:  emigration,  423,  424; 
Turkish  Government,  424;  its  unjust 
taxation,  424;  persecutes  Armenians, 
425;  opposed  to  missionaries  425; 
Russia  a  menace,  425,  426;  Roman 
Catholics,  426;  Jesuit  labors,  426,  427; 
relation  to  Oriental  Churches,  427; 
self-support,  428.  Outlook:  hope  de- 
rived from  past  success,  428,  429; 
probable  effect  of  Brummanna  Confer- 
ence, 429,  430. 
Turkistan,  see  Central  Asia. 


Union  Movement  among  missionaries  in 
Philippines,  201,  202;  in  Japan,  227, 
228. 

United  Presbyterian  educational  work  in 
Egypt,  468. 

United  States  in  Philippines,  188;  ef- 
forts for  Islands,  200,  201. 

Uruguay,    123;   missions  in,    133,   134. 


Venezuela,  123,  124;  missions  in,  140. 

Village  system  of  India,  356. 

Visiting  workers,  a  help  in  Japan,   231; 

in  India,  369. 
Volcanic   islands,    143. 
Voluntary  work  for  Chinese  in  America, 

536. 
Voodooism  in  West  Indies,  94. 


W 


Walker,  American  filibuster,  in  Nicara- 

Wjua,  71. 
arneck,    Prof.,    estimate    of    Red    In- 
dians, 40;    China's  statistics,   276,   277. 

Wesleyan  Methodists,  in  Central  Amer- 
ica, 79;  in  Burma,  335,  336;  in  Cey- 
lon,  337,   338. 

West  Indies.  83-102.  Historical  setting, 
83.  The  island  groups:  Bahamas,  83, 
84;  four  large  islands,  84;  Cuba,  84, 
85;  its  beauty,  85;  Porto  Rico,  85; 
Jamaica,  85,  86;  Haiti  or  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 86,  87;  Caribbean  Chain,  87_; 
Leeward  Islands,  87.  Climatic  condi- 
tions: temperature,  87;  rains,  wind 
and  health,  88.  Inhabitants:  races, 
88;  Cubans,  88,  89;  languages,  89; 
education,  89;  religious  character  of 
islanders,  88,  90;  voodooism,  90.  "  The 
West  Indian  Enigma  " :  economic 
problem,  90;  action  of  British  Royal 
Commission,  90,  91 ;  political  elements, 
91.  Missionary  forces:  societies,  92, 
93.  Labor  for  different  classes:  gen- 
eral statement,  93;  missions  among 
negroes,  93-95;  obstacles  presented  by 
voodooism,  94;  other  difficulties,  94; 
special  forms  of  labor,  94,  95;  work 
for  Hindus,  95-97;  indenture  sys- 
tem, 95;  work  among  coolies,  06;  need 
for   enlargement,   96,    97;    missions   to 


Spanish-speaking  Romanists,  97-102; 
Doctor  Diaz,  97;  Catholic  circular 
against  missions,  97,  98;  conditions 
confronting  missionaries,  98,  99; 
Brau's  characterization  of  existing 
religions,  99;  efforts  for  children,  99, 
100;  work  for  women,  100;  medical 
missions,  100,  loi;  lessons  learned  in 
recent  years  by  missionaries,   loi,   102. 

Witte's  plan  for  educating  Brazil  In- 
dians,  131,   132. 

Women  of  Mission  Lands.  In  Green- 
land, 10;  homes  in,  11.  Indian  homes, 
14-16;  polygamy,  17;  not  allowed  in 
Canada,  21.  Eskimo  cruelties  prac- 
ticed in  Alaska,  33,  34;  improvement 
there,  35.  Indian  girls  taught  in  Alas- 
ka and  result,  35,  36;  Miss  Carter's 
work  for,  43.  Effect  of  confessional 
on  Mexican  women,  57;  Mariolatry,  58. 
In  Central  America,  73;  religion  there, 
76;  voluntary  woman  missionary,  80. 
Porto  Rican  women,  100.  Women's 
names  in  South  America,  124;  Miss 
Tarbox  in  Venezuela,  140;  kind  of 
women  needed  in  South  American 
woman's  work,  140.  In  Melanesia, 
147;  in  Polynesia,  148;  devotion  to 
dead  children  in  Micronesia,  151;  im 
morality  on  Savage  Island,  158.  Wom 
en  of  aboriginal  Australian  tribes,  170 
Nezv  Guinea  homes,  173,  174.  Hau 
hau  immorality  in  New  Zealand,  177, 
Women  eaten  in  New  Guinea,  182, 
Woman's  work  not  appreciated  by 
Dutch  societies,  195.  Wife's  action  at 
Borneo  funeral,  198.  Woman  ruined 
in  Philippines,  199.  Woman  the  orig- 
inator of  the  lapanese  sect,  Tenrikyo, 
216;  Japanese  daughters  sell  themselves 
to  life  of  shame,  217;  education  of 
girls,  220;  immorality  the  great  ob- 
stacle to  a  pure  gospel,  222;  women 
aiding  in  revival  work,  230.  Woman 
missionary  a  novelty  in  Luchu  Is- 
lands, 232.  Garments  of  Korean 
women,  239;  their  homes  and  status 
in,  240,  241;  their  spirit-worship,  244, 
245;  act  as  mutangs  or  Shamans,  245. 
Girls  educated  in  Chinese  day  schools, 
279;  in  boarding  schools,  280;  women 
trained  in  station-classes,  281;  reached 
by  village  itineration,  284;  Ernpress 
Dowager  convinced  of  Boxer  invul- 
nerability, 2y2;  women  missionaries 
should  go  to  China,  299,  300.  Dress 
and  homes  in  Siam,  304;  Laos  cos- 
tumes, 305;  Mrs.  Judson's  pioneer  ef- 
forts for  Siam,  313;  School  for  Girls 
in  Bangkok,  314.  Burman  women, 
323.  Singhalese  women  on  Adam's 
Peak,  329.  Burman  young  women  as 
school-teachers,  336.  Women  inferior 
to  horses  in  Ceylon,  337;  Miss  Agnew 
and  Oodooville  Boarding  School,  338, 
339;  gifts  of  Ceylonese  Christians,  339. 
Characteristics  of  India's  women,  355, 
356;  effect  of  Hinduism  on,  360;  work 
for,  370,  371;  female  education  in 
Christian  and  non-Christian  communi- 
ties of  India,  378,  379;  Christianity  a 
boon  to,  382.    Persian  homes,  394-396; 


ItJDEX 


m 


woman  s  condition,  396;  Babism's  fa- 
mous woman  missionary,  399;  Jewesses 
reached,  402;  Fiske  Seminary,  404; 
medical  work  for  women,  407;  women 
missionaries'  influence,  407.  Women's 
higher  education  in  Turkish  Empire, 
421;  medicine  a  door  to  Moslem  wom- 
en, 423 ;  Russian  school  for  young 
women  in  Nazareth,  426;  work  for 
women  and  girls,  428.  African  Bantu 
women,  444;  Zulus,  444;  prostitution, 
461;  Lovedale  women,  470;  African 
■women  evangelizing,  471;  polygamy 
and  other  woes  of  womanhood,  472, 
473;  her  influence  in  society,  473,  474. 
Dress  in  Madagascar,  479.  Widows 
buried  alive  in  Siberia,  498.  Polyan- 
dry in  Tibet,  500.  Arabian  wives,  505. 
The  family  in  Annam,  506.  Mrs. 
Rijnhart  and  Miss  Taylor  in  Tibet, 
510,  511.  Jewess  marriage  restricted 
in  1 8th  century,  518.  Procurers'  Pro- 
tective Association  in  San  Francisco, 
530.      Women's    work    for    Australian 


Chinese,  535;  their  labors  for  Chi- 
nese in  U.  S.,  536;  Miss  Culbertson's 
rescue  work,  538;  rescue  of  Chinese 
girls,   539. 


Young  Men's  Christian  Associations: 
among  Indians,  43,  44;  in  Brazil,  131; 
in  work  for  Japanese  in  America,  534; 
in  work  for  Chinese  in  America,  537, 
538. 

Young  People's  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor; in  Mexico,  62. 

Yucatan,  51,  52. 


Zambos,  73. 

Zangwill,    I.,    a    superlative    writer    on 

Jews,   517. 
Zionism,   520,   521. 


11012  01127  8548 


DATE  DUE 

-  v«.*!^aSSS^ 

a^ 

..H^^^^lMa.^ 

^ 

"*'"*^!H 

_—-—■, 

Demco.  Inc.  38-293 


